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AS*  -  -    ■    %\ 

^  ^      ^  —       Ov 


N 


RELIGIOUS    THOUGHT 


AND 


LIFE    IN    INDIA. 


AN   ACCOUNT   OF   THE    RELIGIONS    OF   THE 

INDIAN    PEOPLES,  BASED    ON   A   LIFE'S    STUDY   OF   THEIR 

LITERATURE   AND    ON    PERSONAL    INVESTIGATIONS 

IN    THEIR   OWN    COUNTRY. 


•^BY 

MONIER  WILLIAMS,  M.A.,  CLE., 

HON.    D.CL.    OF   THE    UNIVERSITV   OF    OXFORD, 

HON.  LL.D.    OF   THE   UNIVERSITY   OF   CALCUTTA,    HON.    MKMBER   OF    THE    BOMBAY 

ASIATIC   SOCIETY,    HON.    MEMBER   OF   THE   AMERICAN   ORIENTAL   SOCIETY, 

BODEN    PROFESSOR   OF   SANSKRIT   IN   THE    UNIVERSITY    OF,.e*FORp, 

FELLOW   OF    BALLIOL   COLLEGE,    ETC. 


[<  >] 

\^«  , JO' 

PART    I.  ^^^fjV.tlSf-^^ 

VBDISM,   BRAHMANISM,  AND   HINDUISM. 


LONDON: 
JOHN   MURRAY,  ALBEMARLE    STREET. 


1883. 


[All  rights  reserved  ] 


©iforti 

FEINTED  BY  E.  PICKAED   HALL,   M.A.,   AND   HOBACE   HAET 
PEINTEBS   TO   THE   CNIVEESITY 


THEUiiuuiu^iiL 


PREFACE. 


My  aim  in  the  following  pages  has  been  partially 
stated  in  the  introductory  observations.  It  has  been 
my  earnest  endeavour  to  give  such  an  account  of  a 
very  dry  and  complex  subject  as  shall  not  violate 
scholarlike  accuracy,  and  yet  be  sufficiently  read- 
able to  attract  general  readers. 

The  part  now  published  only  deals  with  one  half  of 
the  whole  programme,  but  it  will  be  found  to  consti- 
tute a  separate  and  independent  work,  and  to  comprise 
the  three  most  important  and  difficult  phases  of  Indian 
relieious  thoufjht  —  Vedism,   Brahmanism,   and    Hin- 


duism 


That  the  task,  so  far  completed,  has  been  no  easy 
one  will  be  readily  admitted,  and  I  have  given  the 
best  proof  of  my  sense  of  its  difficulty  by  not  ventur- 
ing to  undertake  it  without  long  preparation. 

It  is  now  exacdy  forty-three  years  since  I  began 
the  study  of  Sanskrit  as  an  undergraduate  at  Balliol 
College,  Oxford ;  my  teacher,  at  that  time,  being  my 
illustrious  predecessor  in  the  Boden  Chair,  Horace 
Hayman  Wilson;  and  it  is  exactly  forty-two  years 
since  I  addressed  myself  to  Arabic  and  Persian  under 
the  tuition  of  the  Mlrza  Muhammad  Ibrahim,  one  of 
the  ablest  of  the  Oriental  Professors  at  the  East  India 


a  2 


iv  Preface. 

College,  Haileybury — then  the  only  training-ground 
for  the  Indian  Civil  Service  probationers. 

In  1875  I  published  the  first  edition  of  Indian  Wis- 
dom^;' and  it  may  be  well  to  point  out  that,  as  the 
present  volume  deals  with  the  principal  phases  of  the 
Hindu  religion,  so  the  object  of  the  former  work  was 
to  give  a  trustworthy  general  idea  of  the  character  and 
contents  of  the  sacred  literature  on  which  that  relisfion 
is  founded.  Since  the  publication  of  '  Indian  Wisdom ' 
I  have  made  two  journeys  to  India,  and  travelled 
throus^h  the  lenorth  and  breadth  of  the  Oueen's  eastern 
empire.  I  felt  that  for  a  writer  to  be  competent  to 
give  a  trustworthy  account  of  the  complicated  religious 
systems  prevalent  among  our  Indian  fellow-subjects, 
two  requisites  were  needed : — first,  that  he  should 
have  made  a  life-long  study  of  their  literature,  and, 
secondly,  that  he  should  have  made  personal  inves- 
tigations into  the  creeds  and  practices  of  the  natives 
of  India  in  their  own  country,  and,  as  far  as  possible, 
■in  their  own  homes. 

Even  the  most  profound  Orientalists  who  have 
never  come  in  contact  with  the  Indian  mind,  except 
in  books,  commit  themselves  to  mischievous  and  mis- 

'  A  very  energetic  and  useful  Missionary,  the  late  Rev.  James  Vaughan, 
in  his  work  called  '  The  Trident,  the  Crescent,  and  the  Cross,'  copied 
from  '  Indian  Wisdom '  a  large  number  of  my  translations  from  Sanskrit 
literature,  and  interspersed  them  everywhere  throughout  his  account 
of  Hinduism  withoid  asking  my  leave,  and  without  any  marks  of  quo- 
tation or  references  in  his  foot-notes.  It  is  true  he  mentions  my  name 
eulogistically  in  his  Preface,  but  as  many  readers  systematically  slur 
over  prefatory  remarks,  and  as  some  of  my  translations  are  reproduced 
in  the  present  volume,  it  becomes  necessary  to  shelter  myself  from  the 
charge  of  literary'  larceny  which  might  be  brought  against  me  by  those 
who  know  his  book  but  have  not  read  '  Indian  Wisdom.' 


Preface.  v 

leading  statements,  when,  leaving  the  region  of  their 
book-learning,  they  venture  to  dogmatize  in  regard 
to  the  present  condition — religious,  moral,  and  intel- 
lectual— of  the  inhabitants  of  India;  while,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  most  meritorious  missionaries  and 
others  who  have  passed  all  their  lives  in  some  one 
Indian  province,  without  acquiring  any  scholarlike 
acquaintance  with  either  Sanskrit  or  Arabic, — the  two 
respective  master-keys  to  the  Hindu  and  Muhammadan 
religions, — are  liable  to  imbibe  very  false  notions  in 
regard  to  the  real  scope  and  meaning  of  the  religious 
thought  and  life  by  which  they  have  been  surrounded, 
and  to  do  serious  harm  by  propagating  their  mis- 
apprehensions. 

And,  as  bearing  on  the  duty  of  studying  Indian 
religions,  I  trust  I  may  be  allowed  to  repeat  here  the 
substance  of  what  I  said  at  a  Meeting  of  the  'National 
Indian  Association,'  held  on  December  12,  1877,  i-inder 
the  presidency  of  the  Earl  of  Northbrook,  late  Viceroy 
of  India : — 

'  I  am  deeply  convinced  that  the  more  we  learn  about 
the  ideas,  feelings,  drift  of  thought,  religious  develop- 
ment, eccentricities,  and  even  errors  and  superstitions 
of  the  natives  of  India,  the  less  ready  shall  we  be  to 
judge  them  by  our  own  conventional  European  stand- 
ards ;  the  less  disposed  to  regard  ourselves  as  the  sole 
depositaries  of  all  the  true  knowledge,  learning,  virtue, 
and  refinement  existing  on  the  earth  ;  the  less  prone 
to  despise,  as  an  inferior  race,  the  men  who  compiled 
the  Laws  of  Manu,  one  of  the  most  remarkable  literary 
productions  of  the  world  ;  who  thought  out  systems  of 


vi  Preface. 

ethics  worthy  of  Christianity ;  who  composed  the 
Ramayana  and  Maha-bharata,  poems  In  some  respects 
outrlvalHng  the  Iliad  and  the  Odyssey ;  who  invented 
for  themselves  the  science  of  grammar,  arithmetic, 
astronomy,  logic,  and  who  elaborated  independently 
six  most  subtle  systems  of  philosophy.  Above  all, 
the  less  inclined  shall  we  be  to  stisfmatize  as  "  be- 
nigh  ted  heathen"  the  authors  of  two  religions,  which — 
however  lamentably  antagonistic  to  Christianity — are 
at  this  moment  professed  by  about  half  the  human 
race. 

*  We  cannot,  of  course,  sympathize  with  what  is  false 
in  the  several  creeds  of  Hindus,  Buddhists,  Jains, 
Parsis,  and  Muslims.  But  we  can  consent  to  examine 
them  from  their  own  point  of  view,  we  can  study  their 
sacred  books  in  their  own  languages — Sanskrit,  Pali, 
Prakrit,  Zand,  and  Arabic — rather  than  In  Imperfect 
English  translations.  We  can  pay  as  much  de- 
ference to  the  interpretations  of  their  own  commen- 
tators as  we  expect  to  be  accorded  to  our  own 
interpretation  of  the  difficulties  of  our  own  Sacred 
Scriptures.  We  can  avoid  denouncing  in  strong 
language  what  we  have  never  thoroughly  investigated, 
and  do  not  thoroughly  understand. 

'Yes,  I  must  speak  out.  It  seems  to  me  that  the 
general  Ignorance  of  our  fellow-countrymen  In  regard 
to  the  relloflons  of  India  is  often  worse  than  a  blank. 
A  man,  learned  in  European  lore,  asked  me  the  other 
day  whether  the  Hindus  were  not  all  Buddhists  ?  Of 
course  ignorance  is  associated  with  indifference.  I 
stayed  in  India  with  an  eminent  Indian  civilian  who 


Preface.  vli 

had  lived  for  years  quite  unconsciously  within  a  few 
hundred  yards  of  a  celebrated  shrine,  endeared  to  the 
Hindus  by  the  religious  memories  of  centuries.  An- 
other had  never  heard  of  a  perfectly  unique  temple 
not  two  miles  from  the  gate  of  his  own  compound. 
Ignorance,  too,  is  often  associated  with  an  attitude  of 
undisguised  contempt.  Another  distinguished  civilian, 
who  observed  that  I  was  diligent  in  prosecuting  my 
researches  into  the  true  nature  of  Hinduism,  expressed 
surprise  that  I  could  waste  my  time  in  "grubbing  into 
such  dirt."  The  simple  truth,  however,  is  that  we  are 
all  more  or  less  ignorant.  We  are  none  of  us  as  yet 
quite  able  to  answer  the  question  : — What  are  Brah- 
manism  and  Hinduism,  and  what  relation  do  they 
bear  to  each  other  ?  We  have  none  of  us  yet  suf- 
ficiently studied  them  under  all  their  Protean  aspects, 
in  their  own  vast  sacred  literature,  stretching  over  a 
period  of  more  than  three  thousand  years.  We 
under-estimate  their  comprehensiveness,  their  super- 
subtlety,  their  recuperative  hydra-like  vitality;  and  we 
are  too  much  given  to  include  the  whole  system  under 
sweeping  expressions  such  as  "heathenism"  or  "idol- 
atry," as  if  every  idea  it  contains  was  to  be  eradicated 
root  and  branch.' 

To  these  words  spoken  by  me  (nearly  in  the  form 
given  above)  soon  after  my  return  from  my  second 
Indian  journey  I  adhere  in  every  particular. 

Let  it  not  be  supposed,  however,  that  my  sympathy 
with  the  natives  of  our  great  Dependency  has  led  me 
to  gloss  over  what  is  false,  impure,  and  utterly  deplor- 
able  in   their  religious  systems.      The   most  cursory 


viii  Preface. 

perusal  of  the  following  pages  will  show  that  what  I 
have  written  is  not  amenable  to  any  such  imputation. 

Nor  do  I  claim  for  the  present  work  any  unusual 
immunity  from  error.  Mistakes  will,  probably,  be 
found  in  it.  The  subject  of  which  it  treats  is  far  too 
intricate  to  admit  of  my  pretending  to  a  more  than 
human  accuracy.  Nor  can  any  one  scholar  hope  to 
unravel  with  complete  success  the  complicated  texture 
of  Hindu  religious  thought  and  life. 

As  to  the  second  part  of  my  task  I  am  happy  to  say 
that  it  is  already  far  advanced.  But,  as  I  am  on  the 
eve  of  making  a  third  journey  to  India,  I  prefer  delay- 
ing the  publication  of  my  account  of  other  Indian 
creeds  till  I  have  cleared  up  a  few  obscure  points  by 
personal  inquiries  in  situ. 

It  is  possible,  I  fear,  that  some  who  read  the  chapters 
of  this  volume  consecutively,  and  are  also  acquainted 
with  my  previous  writings,  may  be  inclined  to  accuse 
me  of  occasionally  repeating  myself;  but  it  must  be 
borne  in  mind  that  all  I  have  hitherto  written — 
whether  in  books,  newspapers,  or  Reviews — was,  from 
the  first,  intended  to  lead  up  to  a  more  complete  and 
continuous  work,  and  that  the  book  now  put  forth 
abounds  with  entirely  new  matter. 

It  remains  to  state  that  my  friend  Pandit  Shyamajl 
Krishnavarma,  B.A.,  of  Balliol  College,  has  aided  me 
in  correcting  typographical  errors,  but  is  in  no  way  re- 
sponsible for  the  statements  and  opinions  expressed 
in  the  following  pages. 

M.  W. 

Oxford,  Novetnber  12,  1883. 


CONTENTS. 


INTRODUCTORY  OBSERVATIONS. 


PAGE 


Vedism,  Brahmanismj  and  Hinduism  defined.  Three  principal 
stages  or  phases  of  the  Hindu  religion.  Origin  and  form  of  religion 
among  the  primitive  Aryans        .        .         .        .         .        •        •         .1-6 

CHAPTER   I. 

Vedism. 
Four  Vedas.     Gods  of  the  Veda.     Ideas  expressed  by  the  term 
sacrifice.     Soma  plant.     Introduction  of  animal-sacrifice.     Remark- 
able hymns  of  the  \'eda.     Social  condition  of  the  people    .         .  7-19 

CHAPTER  II. 
Brahmanism. 
Four  phases.  'Ritualistic  Brahmanism.  ,  Development  of  the  idea 
of  sacrifice.  ^Philosophical  Brahmanism.'  Upanishads.  Sutras, 
Subtle  and  gross  bodies.  Silnkhya  philosophy.  Vedanta  philosophy. 
Tri-unity  of  entities.  Three  corporeal  envelopes.  V^edanta  and 
Sahkhya  systems  compared.  Nyaya  philosophy.  (  Mythological  Brah- 
manism. ;  Buddhism.  Tri-murti.  Descents  of  Vishnu.  Nomistic 
Brahmanism.  j  rrhree  codes  of  law; ^  20-53 

CHAPTER    III. 
Hinduism.     General  Observations. 
Distinction  between  Brahmanism  and  HindCiism.     The  philoso- 
pher Sahkara.     Inter-relationship  and  distinction  between  Saivism 
and  Vaishnavism.      Six  principal  sects.  Q  D'o'ctrnie~~of~inLaiiialieH>.^ 
Saiva  and  Vaishnava  marks.    Rosaries.    Symbols  and  images  .        54  72 

CHAPTER    IV. 

Saivism. 
Definition  of  Saivism.     Worship  of  Rudra-Siva.     Description  of 
Siva.     Saiva  sects.     Ceremonies  performed  at  Walkesvar  temple. 
Ceremonies  performed  at  Bhuvanesvara  temple  .        .        .        73~94 


-A 


X  Contents. 

CHAPTER  V. 
Vaishnavism. 

PAGE 

Chief  characteristics  of  Vaishnavism.  Tolerance.  Religious  credu- 
lity. Incarnations  of  Vishnu.  Vaishnava  sects.  Initiation.  Sect 
founded  by  Ramanuja.  Two  antagonistic  parties.  Privacy  in  eating. 
Sect  founded  by  Madhva.  Common  ground  with  Christianity.  Sect 
founded  by  Vallabha.  Profligacy  of  Vallabha  Maharajas.  Sect 
founded  by  Caitanya.  Four  leaders.  Ceremonies  at  a  Vaishnava 
temple,  Poona 95-145 

CHAPTER   VI. 
Vaishnavism.    Minor  Sects  and  Reforming  Theistic  Movements. 

Sects  founded  by  Nimbarka ;  by  Ramananda;  by  Svami-Narayana. 
Interview  between  Bishop  Heber  and  Svami-Narayana.  Temples 
at  Wartal  and  Ahmedabad.  Precepts  from  the  Directory.  Theistic 
sect  founded  by  Kablr.  Examples  of  his  precepts.  Sikh  sect 
founded  by  Nanak.  Features  of  his  teaching.  Antagonism  between 
Sikhs  and  Muhammadans.  Govind  founder  of  Sikh  nationality. 
Deification  of  the  Sikh  bible.  Examples  of  precepts.  Metempsy- 
chosis.    Govind's  shrine  at  Patna.     Golden  temple  at  Amritsar    146-179 

CHAPTER   VII. 
Saktism,  or  Goddess-worship. 

Doctrine  of  the  Tantras.  Two  systems  of  Saktism.  Matris  or 
Mothers.  Description  of  Kali.  Initiation.  Wine-drinking.  Mantras, 
Bijas,  spells.     Mystic  diagrams.    Amulets,  gestures.     Tantras .    180-208 

CHAPTER    VIII. 

Tutelary  and  Village  Deities. 
Ganesa    and    Su-brahmanya.       Ayenar.       Hanuman.      Mother- 
worship.     Brahmanism  a  kind  of  Pantheism.     Specialities  of  the 
Mothers  of  Gujarat 209-229 

CHAPTER    IX. 

Demon-worship  and  Spirit-worship. 
Seven  upper  and  seven  lower  worlds.  Nature  and  organization  of 
Hindii  demons.  Two  grand  divisions  of  demons.  Triple  classifica- 
tion of  devils.  Methods  of  neutralizing  evil  influences  of  demons. 
Structures  and  observances  connected  with  devil-worship.  Extract 
from  Bishop  Caldwell's  account  of  the  religion  of  the  Shanars. 
Belief  in  demoniacal  influences  and  their  counteraction     .        .    230-256 


Contents.  xi 

CHAPTER   X. 
Hero-worship  and  Saint-worship. 

PAGE 

No  limit  to  deification  of  great  men.  Examples  of  local  deifica- 
tions. Vithoba  ;  Tuka-rama  ;  Khando-ba  ;  Jiianesvara.  Other  ex- 
amples. Parasu-rama,  or  Rama  with  the  axe.  Five  Pandava 
princes 257-273 

CHAPTER   XI. 

Death,  Funeral  Rites,  and  Ancestor-worship. 

Main  object  of  a  Hindu  funeral.  Funeral  ceremonies  in  Vedic 
times.  Funeral  rites  as  prescribed  by  Asvalayana.  Other  rules  for 
domestic  rites.  Bone-gathering  ceremony.  Sruddha  ceremonies. 
Modern  practice  of  Sraddha  and  funeral  ceremonies.  Character 
and  functions  of  Yama,  god  of  death.  Description  of  the  career  and 
history  of  a  deceased  mortal  subject  to  Yama.  Performance  of 
observances  and  ceremonies  to  secure  immunity  from  future  punish- 
ment. Description  of  bone-gathering  ceremony  at  Bombay.  Sraddha 
ceremonies.  Sraddhas  distinguished  under  twelve  heads.  Sraddha 
performed  for  a  recently  deceased  parent.  Sraddhas  performed  at 
Gaya 274-312 

CHAPTER   XII. 

Worship  of  Animals,  Trees,  and  Inanimate  Objects.  — -   ' 

Motives  for  worshipping  animals.  Metempsychosis.  Worship  of 
cows  ;  of  serpents.  Race  of  Nagas.  Snake  superstitions.  Worship 
of  various  animals  ;  of  trees  and  plants  ;  of  the  TulasI ;  of  the 
Pippala  ;  of  the  Bilva  tree  ;  of  material  and  natural  objects  ;  of  the 
sun,  moon,  planets,  water,  mountains,  rocks,  and  stones    .        .    313-350 

CHAPTER   XIII. 

The  Hindu  Religion  in  Ancient  Family-life. 

Twelve  purificatory  rites.  Birth  of  a  son.  Subsequent  ceremonies. 
Initiation.  Four  stages  of  a  Brahman's  life.  Ancient  marriage- 
ceremonial.     Idea  of  fire.     Periodical  religious  observances       .    351-369 

CHAPTER  XIV. 

The  Hindu  Religion  in  Modern  Family-life. 

Name-giving  ceremony.  Horoscope  translated.  Shaving  as  a  reli- 
gious duty.  Betrothal.  Initiation.  Marriage  ceremonies.  Wed- 
ding of  Sir  Mahgaldas  Nathoobhai's  sons.  Indian  girls.  Three 
objects  of  human  life.     The  model  wife 370-389 


xii  Contents. 

CHAPTER   XV. 
Religious  Life  of  the  Orthodox  Hindu  Householder. 

PAGE 

Description  of  a  modem  Hindu  house.  Some  Vedic  rites  main- 
tained. A  Brahman's  daily  duties.  Dress.  Sacredness  of  the 
kitchen.  Omens ;  auspicious  and  inauspicious  sights.  Religious 
status  of  women.  Teeth-cleaning.  Application  of  ashes.  Morning 
Sandhya  service.  Brahma-yajiia  service.  Tarpana  service.  Paiica- 
yatana  ceremony.  Vaisvade\a  ceremony.  Bali-harana  ceremony. 
Dining.     Prayer  before  eating 390-425 

CHAPTER   XVI. 

Hindu  Fasts,  Festivals,  and  Holy  Days. 
Hindu  powers  of  fasting.     Special  fasts.     Makara-sahkranti.    Va- 
santa-paiicaml.    Siva-ratri.    Holl.     Rama-navamT.     Naga-paiicami. 
Krishna-janmashtaml.      Ganesa-caturthi.      Durga-puja>      Kali-puja. 
Rama-llla.     Dlvali.     Illuminations.     Karttika-purnima     .        .   426-433 

CHAPTER   XVII. 

Temples,  Shrines,  and  Sacred  Places. 
Benares  described.   Tanjore  temple.    Madura  temple.    Ramesvara. 
Trichinopoly.     Jambukesvara.      Kanjivaram.     Tinnevelly  temples. 
SrI-rahgam.     Temple  girls.     Courtezans 434-451 

CHAPTER   XVIII. 

Caste  in  relation  to  Trades  and  Industries. 
Caste,  trade,  and  industry  part  of  religion.     Poverty  and  potential 
wealth  of  India.     Village  communities.     Tillers  of  soil.      Village 
functionaries.     Trades.     Delicacy  and  beauty  of  Indian  hand-work. 
Advantages  and  disadvantages  of  caste 452-474 

CHAPTER   XIX. 
Modern  Hindu  Theism.     Rammohun  Rov. 

Theism  no  new  doctrine  in  India.  Life  of  Rammohun  Roy. 
His  death  at  Bristol 475-490 

CHAPTER   XX. 
Modern  Hindu  Theism.     Rammohun  Roy's  successors. 
Dwarkanath   Tagore.      Debendra-nath   Tagore.      Adi    Brahma- 
Samaj.     Keshab  Chandar  Sen.     Brahma-Samaj  of  India.     Sadha- 
rana  Brahma-Samaj.     Other  Samajes.     Conclusion  .        .        .    491-520 


V 


RELIGIOUS    THOUGHT 

AND 

LIFE    IN    INDIA. 


Introductory  Observations. 

The  present  work  is  intended  to  meet  the  wants  of  those 
educated  Englishmen  who  may  be  desirous  of  gaining  an 
insight  into  the  mental,  moral,  and  religious  condition  of  the 
inhabitants  of  our  Eastern  empire,  and  yet  are  quite  unable 
to  sift  for  themselves  the  confused  mass  of  information — 
accurate  and  inaccurate — spread  out  before  them  by  innu- 
merable writers  on  Indian  subjects.  Its  aim  will  be  to 
present  trustworthy  outlines  of  every  important  phase  of 
religious  thought  and  life  in  India,  whether  Hindu,  Buddhist, 
Jain,  Zoroastrian,  or  Muhammadan.  Even  Indian  Chris- 
tianity will  receive  a  share  of  attention ;  for  it  must  be  borne 
in  mind  that  the  existence  of  at  least  a  million  and  a  half 
of  native  Christian  converts — Roman  Catholic  and  Protestant 
— ^justify  the  inclusion  of  Christianity  among  the  religious 
systems  permanently  established  on  Indian  soil. 

Having  been  a  student  of  Indian  sacred  literature  for  more 
than  forty  years,  and  having  twice  travelled  over  every  part 
of  India,  from  Bombay  to  Calcutta,  from  Cashmere  to  Ceylon, 
I  may  possibly  hope  to  make  a  dry  subject  fairly  attractive 
without  any  serious  sacrifice  of  scientific  accuracy,  while  at 
the  same  time  it  will  be  my  earnest  endeavour  to  hold  the 
scales  impartially  between  antagonistic  religious  systems  and 

B 


/ 


2  Introdttctory  Observations. 

as  far  as  possible  to  do  justice  to  the  amount  of  truth  that 
each  may  contain. 

The  Hindu  religion  may  justly  claim  our  first  consideration, 
not  only  for  the  reason  that  nearly  two  hundred  millions  of 
the  population  of  India  are  Hindus,  but  because  of  the  in- 
tricacy of  its  doctrines  and  the  difficulty  of  making  them 
intelligible  to  European  minds. 

With  a  view,  then,  to  greater  perspicuity  I  propose  making 
use  of  the  three  words  Vedism,  Brahmanism,  and  Hinduism 
as  convenient  expressions  for  the  three  principal  stages  or 
phases  in  the  development  of  that  complicated  system. 

I.  Vedism  was  the  earliest  form  of  the  religion  of  the 
Indian  branch  of  the  great  Aryan  family — the  form  which 
was  represented  in  the  songs,  invocations,  and  prayers,  col- 
lectively called  Veda,  and  attributed  to  the  Rishis,  or  sup- 
posed inspired  leaders  of  religious  thought  and  life  in  India. 
It  was  the  worship  of  the  deified  forces  or  phenomena  of 
Nature,  such  as  Fire,  Sun,  Wind,  and  Rain,  which  were 
sometimes  individualized  or  thought  of  as  separate  divine 
powers,  sometimes  gathered  under  one  general  conception 
and  personified  as  one  God. 
^  II.    Brahmanism    grew    out    of  Vedism.      It   taught   the 

merging  of  all  the  forces  of  Nature  in  one  universal  spiri- 
tual Being — the  only  real  Entity — which,  when  unmanifested 
and  impersonal,  was  called  Brahma  (neuter);  when  manifested 
as  a  personal  creator,  was  called  Brahma  (masculine) ;  and 
when  manifested  in  the  highest  order  of  men,  was  called 
Brahmana  ('  the  Brahmans ').  Brahmanism  was  rather  a 
philosophy  than  a  religion,  and  in  its  fundamental  doctrine 
was  spiritual  Pantheism. 
\  III.  Hinduism  grew  out  of  Brahmanism.  It  was  Brah- 
manism, so  to  speak,  run  to  seed  and  spread  out  into  a 
confused  tangle  of  divine  personalities  and  incarnations.  The 
one  system  was  the  rank  and  luxuriant  outcome  of  the  other. 
Yet  Hinduism  is  distinct  from   Brahmanism,  and  chiefly  in 


Introductory  Observations,  3 

this— that  it  takes  little  account  of  the  primordial,  impersonal 
Being  Brahma,  and  wholly  neglects  its  personal  manifestation 
Brahma,  substituting,  in  place  of  both  Brahma  and  Brahma, 
the  two  popular  personal  deities  Siva  and  "V^ishnu.  Be  it 
noted,  however,  that  the  employment  of  the  term  Hinduism 
is  wholly  arbitrary  and  confessedly  unsatisfactory.  Unhappily 
there  is  no  other  expression  sufficiently  comprehensive  to 
embrace  that  all-receptive  system,  which,  without  any  one 
common  Founder,  was  the  product  of  Brahmanism  multiplied 
by  contact  with  its  own  offspring  Buddhism,  and  with  various 
pre-existing  cults.  Hinduism  is  Brfdimanism  modified  by 
the  creeds  and  superstitions  of  Buddhists  and  Non-Aryan 
races  of  all  kinds,  including  Dravidians,  Kolarians,  and  per- 
haps pre-Kolarian  aborigines.  It  has  even  been  modified  by 
ideas  imported  from  the  religions  of  later  conquering  races, 
such  as  Islam  and  Christianity. 

I  propose  to  trace  briefly  the  gradual  development  of  the 
HindQ  religion  through  these  three  principal  phases  which 
really  run  into  each  other.  In  so  doing  I  shall  examine  it, 
as  in  fairness  every  religion  ought  to  be  examined,  not  only 
from  the  point  of  view  of  its  best  as  well  as  its  worst  side, 
but  in  the  light  thrown  upon  it  by  its  own  interpreters,  as 
well  as  by  European  scholars.  And  for  the  sake  of  clearness, 
it  will  be  necessary  to  begin  by  repeating  a  few  facts  which  to 
many  educated  persons  are  now  a  thrice-told  tale. 

The  original  home  of  our  progenitors  as  members  of  the 
great  Aryan  or  Indo-European  family  was  probably  in  the 
high  land  surrounding  the  sources  of  the  Oxus,  somewhere 
to  the  north  of  the  point  connecting  the  Hindu  Kush  with  the 
Himalaya  range.  The  highest  part  of  this  region  is  called  the 
Pamir  plateau,  and,  like  the  table-land  of  Tibet,  with  which 
it  is  connected  by  a  lofty  ridge,  it  well  deserves  the  title  of 
'the  roof  of  the  world'  [bdni-i-dujiyd).  The  hardy  inhabit- 
ants of  these  high-lands  were  a  pastoral  and  agricultural 
race,  and  soon  found  themselves  straitened  for  room  within 

B  2 


^  Introductory  Observations, 

the  limits  of  their  mountain  tracts.  With  the  Increase  of 
population  they  easily  spread  themselves  westwards  through 
the  districts  sloping  towards  Balkh,  and  southwards,  through 
the  passes  of  Afghanistan  on  the  one  side  and  Cashmere 
on  the  other,  into  Northern  India. 

They  were  a  people  gifted  with  high  mental  capacities  and 
strong  moral  feelings.  They  possessed  great  powers  of  ap- 
preciating and  admiring  the  magnificent  phenomena  of  nature 
with  which  they  found  themselves  surrounded.  They  were 
endowed  with  a  deep  religious  sense — a  profound  conscious- 
ness of  their  dependence  on  the  invisible  forces  which  regu- 
lated the  order  of  the  world  in  which  they  found  themselves 
placed.  They  were  fitly  called  'noble'  {arya),  and  they 
spoke  a  language  fitly  called  '  polished '  or  '  carefully  con- 
structed '  {Saiiskritd). 

To  trace  the  origin  of  religion  among  such  a  people  requires 
no  curious  metaphysical  hypotheses.  We  have  only  to  ask 
ourselves  what  would  be  the  natural  working  of  their  devo- 
tional instincts,  unguidcd  by  direct  revelation.  Their  material 
welfare  depended  on  the  Influences  of  sky,  air,  light,  and  sun 
(sometimes  fancifully  imaged  in  the  mind  as  emerging  out  of 
an  antecedent  chaotic  night) ;  and  to  these  they  naturally 
turned  with  awe  and  veneration.  Soon  all  such  phenomena 
were  believed  to  be  animated  by  intelligent  wills.  At  first 
the  relationship  between  spirit,  mind,  and  matter  was  im- 
perfectly apprehended.  Whatever  moved  was  believed  to 
possess  life,  and  with  life  was  associated  power.  Hence 
the  phenomena  of  nature  were  thought  of  as  mysterious 
forces,  whose  favour  required  propitiation.  Next  they  re- 
ceived homage  under  the  general  name  of  Devas,  'luminous 
ones.'  Then,  just  as  men  found  themselves  obliged  to  submit 
to  some  earthly  leader,  so  they  naturally  assigned  supre- 
macy to  one  celestial  being  called  the  'light-father'  (Dyu- 
pitar,  Zei/s  Tranjp,  Jupiter).  Or,  again,  a  kind  of  pre-eminence 
was  sometimes  accorded  to  the  all-investing  sky  or  atmo- 


hitrodnctory  Observations.  5 

sphere  (Varuna,  Ovpavo^),  the  representative  of  an  eternal 
celestial  Presence  watching  men's  actions,  and  listening  to 
their  words  by  night  as  well  as  by  day.  Of  course  another 
principal  object  of  veneration  was  the  orb  of  the  Sun  called 
Mitra,  often  connected  with  another  aspect  of  the  Sun, 
Aryaman,  whose  influences  fertilized  lands,  enriched  pastures, 
and  fructified  crops. 

Then  other  kindred  natural  phenomena,  such  as  fire  (Agni, 
Latin  Ignis),  and  the  dawn  (Ushas,  'Ilwy,  Aurora),  and  Ida 
or  Ira  (Iris),  were  by  degrees  regarded  with  varying  degrees 
of  veneration.  They  all  had  names  which  still  exist  under 
different  modifications  among  different  branches  of  the  Aryan 
stock,  leading  us  to  infer  that  they  were  among  the  most 
ancient  objects  held  sacred  in  the  original  abode  of  the  Aryan 
race,  before  the  several  members  of  the  family  separated. 

There  is  even  ground  for  conjecturing  that  triads  of  natural 
objects,  such  as  Sky,  Atmosphere,  and  Sun,  or  three  forms 
of  the  Sun,  called  Aryaman,  Varuna,  and  Mitra,  were  asso- 
ciated together  and  worshipped  by  the  primitive  Aryans  in 
the  earliest  times.  It  is  certain  that  the  Aryan  race,  from 
the  first  development  of  its  religious  sense  on  the  soil  of 
India,  has  shown  a  tendency  to  attach  a  sacred  significance 
to  the  number  three,  and  to  group  the  objects  of  its  adoration 
in  triple  combinations. 

Not  that  the  nascent  religious  ideas  of  a  people  naturally 
devout  were  regulated  or  circumscribed  in  ancient  times  by 
any  definite  rules  or  precise  limitations.  The  objects  and 
forces  of  nature  received  homage  in  different  ways — some- 
times singly,  as  if  impelled  by  separate  and  independent 
wills  ;  sometimes  in  groups,  as  if  operating  co-ordinately ; 
sometimes  collectively,  as  if  animated  and  pervaded  by  one 
dominating  Spirit,  the  maintainer  of  law  and  order  in  the 
Universe. 

As  to  the  form  of  worship,  that,  too,  was  a  natural  process 
not  yet  burdened  by  tedious  ceremonial  observances.     When 


6  Introductory  Observations. 

men  had  personified  and  deified  the  forces  with  which  they 
were  surrounded,  they  gave  them  characters  hke  their  own. 
They  attributed  to  them  human  tastes,  hkings,  and  predilec- 
tions. They  propitiated  them  by  praise  and  flattery,  accom- 
panying their  hymns  and  invocations  with  such  presents  and 
offerings  of  food  and  drink  as  would  be  deemed  acceptable 
among  themselves,  and  would  be  needed  for  the  maintenance 
of  their  own  vigour  and  vitality. 

Perhaps  the  earliest  and  commonest  offerings  were  rice  and 
clarified  butter.  Then  the  exhilarating  juice  of  the  Soma 
plant,  afterwards  an  essential  ingredient  in  both  Aryan  and 
Iranian  sacrifices,  was  used  as  a  libation.  But  the  form  of 
worship,  like  the  creed  of  the  worshipper,  was  unfettered  by 
precise  rule  or  ritual.  Each  man  satisfied  his  own  religious 
instincts,  according  to  his  own  conception  of  the  character  of 
the  supernatural  being  or  beings  on  whose  favour  his  welfare 
was  thought  to  depend. 


CHAPTER    I. 

Vedism. 

So  much  lias  been  of  late  years  written  and  spoken  about 
the  Veda,  that  to  go  minutely  into  this  subject  would  be, 
according  to  a  Plindu  saying,  '  to  grind  ground  corn.' 

When  the  Indian  branch  of  the  Aryan  family  settled  down 
in  the  land  of  the  seven  rivers  (Sanskrit  Sapta  Sindhu^  Zend 
Hapta  Hcudu),  now  the  Panjab,  about  the  fifteenth  century 
B.  c,  their  religion  was  still  nature-worship.  It  was  still 
adoration  of  the  forces  which  were  everywhere  in  operation 
around  them  for  production,  destruction,  and  reproduction. 
But  it  was  physiolatry  developing  itself  more  distinctly  into 
forms  of  Theism,  Polytheism,  Anthropomorphism,  and  Pan- 
theism. The  phenomena  of  nature  were  thought  of  as  some- 
thing more  than  radiant  beings,  and  something  more  than 
powerful  forces.  To  the  generality  of  worshippers  they  were 
more  distinctly  concrete  personalities,  and  had  more  personal 
attributes.  They  were  addressed  as  kings,  fathers^  guardians, 
friends,  benefactors,  guests.  They  were  invoked  in  formal 
hymns  and  prayers  {inantras)^  in  set  metres  {6/iaudas). 

These  hymns  were  composed  in  an  early  form  of  the 
Sanskrit  language,  at  different  times — perhaps  during  several 
centuries,  from  the  fifteenth  to  the  tenth  B.C. — by  men  of  light 
and  leading  {Rishis)  among  the  Indo-Aryan  immigrants,  who 
were  afterwards  held  in  the  highest  veneration  as  patriarchal 
saints.  Eventually  the  hymns  were  believed  to  have  been 
directly  revealed  to,  rather  than  composed  by,  these  Rishis, 
and  were  then  called  divine  knowledge  ( Veda),  or  the  eternal 
word  heard  {sruii),  and  transmitted  by  them. 


8  Vedism. 

These  Mantras  or  hymns  were  arranged  in  three  principal 
collections  or  continuous  texts  {Samkitds).  The  first  and 
earliest  was  called  the  Hymn-veda  [Rig-veda).  It  was  a 
collection  of  1017  hymns,  arranged  for  mere  reading  or  re- 
citing. This  was  the  first  bible  of  the  Hindu  religion,  and 
the  special  bible  of  Vedism.  We  might  imagine  it  possible 
to  have  collected  the  most  ancient  hymns  and  psalms  of  our 
own  Sacred  Scriptures  in  the  same  manner. 

The  second,  or  Sacrificial  veda  ( Yajjir),  belongs  to  a  later 
phase  of  the  Hindu  system.  It  was  a  liturgical  arrangement 
of  part  of  the  same  collection  of  hymns,  with  additions^  for 
intoning  in  a  peculiar  low  tone  at  sacrificial  ceremonies.  Be 
it  noted,  however,  that  some  of  the  hymns  of  the  Rig-veda 
(for  example^  the  horse-sacrifice  hymn,  I.  162)  presuppose  a 
ritual  already  definite  and  systematized. 

The  third,  or  Chant-veda  [Sdina),  was  another  liturgical 
arrangement  of  some  of  the  same  hymns  for  chanting  at  par- 
ticular sacrifices  in  which  the  juice  of  the  Soma  plant  was  the 
principal  offering. 

A  fourth  collection — which  might  suitably  be  called  the 
Spell-veda — was  added  at  a  later  period.  It  was  a  collection 
of  hymns — some  of  them  similar  to  those  of  the  Rig-veda,  but 
the  greater  part  original — by  a  particular  class  of  priests  called 
Atharvans^.  Many  of  the  texts  and  formularies  of  this 
Atharva-veda  were  ultimately  used  as  charms  and  spells,  and 
are  still  so  used  in  various  parts  of  India. 

By  some  of  the  earliest  hymn-composers  the  gods  continued 
to  be  regarded  as  one  family — children  of  the  old  pre-Vedic 
heavenly  father  (Dyu  or  Dyaus),  while  Earth  (Prithivi)  was 
fabled  as  a  divine  mother.     To  other  sacred  poets  the  pre- 

^  Certain  passages  in  prose  were  added,  which  were  especially  called 
Yajies. 

^  This  was  a  generic  name  for  a  class  of  priests,  descended  from  a  man 
named  Atharvan,  who  appears  to  have  been  the  first  to  institute  the 
worship  of  fire,  before  the  Indians  and  Iranians  separated.  It  is  certain 
that  particular  priests  both  in  India  and  Persia  were  called  Atharvans. 


Vcdis7n.  9 

Vcdic  deification  of  the  Sky  (Varuna,  Ov/iaro?)  remained  a 
principal  object  of  adoration.  He  was  still  occasionally 
exalted  to  the  position  of  a  Supreme  Beint^.  A  well-known 
hymn  in  the  Atharva-veda  (IV.  16)  describes  him  as  ruling  the 
world,  as  penetrating  the  secrets  of  all  hearts,  as  detecting  the 
plots  of  wricked  men,  as  sending  down  countless  messengers 
who  for  ever  traverse  the  earth  and  scan  its  inmates,  as  num- 
bering every  wink  of  men's  eyes,  as  wielding  the  whole 
universe  in  the  manner  of  a  gamester  handling  dice. 

But  the  true  gods  of  the  Veda  constituted  a  trinity  of 
deities.  They  were  the  Fire-god  (the  earth-born  Agni),  the 
Rain-god  (the  air-born  Indra),  and  the  Sun-god  (the  sky-born 
Surya  or  Savitri) — one  for  each  of  the  three  worlds,  earth,  air, 
and  sky  {bhftr,  bhuvah,  svar).  These  three  gods  were  the 
special  objects  of  worship  of  the  early  Indo-Aryan  colonists. 
All  their  other  principal  deities  were  cither  modifications  of, 
or  associated  with,  one  or  other  of  the  members  of  this  Vedic 
trinity.  For  example,  the  wind  (Vayu)  and  the  storm-gods 
(IMaruts),  led  by  the  destroying  god  (Rudra),  were  regarded 
as  intimate  associates  of  the  Rain-god  Indra,  and  were  really 
only  forms  and  modifications  of  that  god.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  ancient  Aryan  deities,  Varuna  and  Mitra,  with  Vishnu, 
were  all  mere  forms  of  the  Sun  (Surya  or  Savitri,  also  called 
Pushan).  Of  course  the  Dawn  (Ushas)  was  also  connected 
with  the  Sun,  and  two  other  deities— the  Asvins,  probably 
personifications  of  two  luminous  points  in  the  sky — were  fabled 
as  his  twin  sons,  ever  young  and  handsome,  travelling  in  a 
golden  car  as  precursors  of  the  Dawn. 

As  to  the  Fire-god  (Agni),  he  had  various  attributes  sig- 
nificant of  his  interest  in  the  world  of  human  beings.  He  was 
God  on  the  earth  and  therefore  more  accessible  than  other 
deities.  He  was  manifested  by  the  friction  of  the  two  pieces 
of  the  sacred  fig-tree  called  Arani,  and  consequently  always 
to  be  found  at  hand.  He  was  visibly  present  in  every  house- 
hold.   He  was  man's  domestic  friend,  the  father  of  the  sacrifice, 


lo  Vedism. 

the  mediator  between  men  and  gods,  the  bearer  of  hymns  and 
prayers  from  every  family  altar  upwards  towards  heaven. 

Fire,  in  fact,  may  be  regarded  as  the  next  god  to  the  Rain- 
god  in  the  estimation  of  Vedic  worshippers  ;  and  certainly  he 
takes  precedence  over  every  other  god  in  connection  with 
sacrificial  rites.  Even  the  Sun-god,  who  is  generally  first  in 
all  Pagan  systems,  is  held  to  be  a  form  of  heavenly  fire.  Fire 
has  always  been  an  object  of  veneration  among  all  nations. 

A  conjecture  may  even  be  hazarded  that  the  three  letters, 
A,  U,  M,  which  combine  to  form  the  sacred  syllable  Om — 
afterwards  typical  of  the  Brahmanical  trinity — were  originally 
the  initial  letters  of  the  trinity  of  gods.  Fire,  Wind,  and  Sun 
(Agni,  Vayu  or  Varuna  for  Indra,  and  Mitra).  It  must  not 
be  forgotten,  however,  that  both  Indra  and  Agni  were,  like 
Varuna,  often  addressed  as  if  each  deity  were  supreme. 
Moreover,  the  god  of  fire  was  sometimes  held  to  possess  a 
kind  of  trinity  or  triple  essence  in  himself,  consisting  of  terres- 
trial fire,  celestial  lightning,  and  solar  heat.  Sometimes  he 
represented  a  simple  creative  energy,  which  evolved  all  things 
out  of  its  own  eternal  essence. 

It  may  be  observed,  too,  that  there  are  allusions  in  the  Rig- 
veda  to  thirty-three  gods  (I.  34.  ii  ;  I.  45-  2),  or  three  groups 
of  gods — the  Rudras,  the  Vasus,  and  the  Adityas.  Their 
names  are  given  variously,  but  they  are  little  more  than  modi- 
fications of  the  three  leading  divine  personifications.  Only 
two  or  three  instances  occur  of  Vedic  deities  who  appear  to 
stand  alone.  One  of  the  most  remarkable  is  Yama,  god  of 
departed  spirits.  It  is  noteworthy  that  the  spirits  of  departed 
ancestors  (Pitris)  who  have  attained  to  heavenly  bliss,  are 
believed  to  occupy  three  different  stages  of  blessedness^ — the 
highest  inhabiting  the  upper  sky,  the  middle  the  intermediate 
air,  and  the  lowest  the  atmospheric  region  near  the  earth. 
Adoration  is  to  be  offered  them,  and  they  are  presided  over 
by  Yama,  leader  of  the  spirits  of  the  dead,  both  good  and  bad. 

The  earliest  legends  represent  him  as  the  first  of  created 


Vcdisni.  1 1 

men  (Ills  twin-sister  being  Yam!)  and  the  first  of  men  who 
died.  Hence  he  is  supposed  to  guide  the  spirits  of  other 
men  who  die  to  the  world  of  spirits.  Sometimes  Death  is 
said  to  be  his  messenger,  he  himself  dwelling  in  celestial  light, 
to  which  the  departed  arc  brought,  and  where  they  enjoy  his 
society  and  that  of  the  ancient  patriarchs.  In  the  later  my- 
thology he  is  God  of  death  and  punisher  of  the  wicked.  In 
the  Veda  he  has  no  such  ofiice, — but  he  has  two  terrific  dogs, 
with  four  eyes,  which  guard  the  way  to  his  abode  (see  p.  16). 

In  brief,  enough  has  been  said  to  show  that  the  early 
religion  of  the  Indo-Aryans  was  a  development  of  a  still 
earlier  belief  in  man's  subjection  to  the  powers  of  nature 
and  his  need  of  conciliating  them.  It  was  an  unsettled 
system  which  at  one  time  assigned  all  the  phenomena  of 
the  universe  to  one  first  Cause  ;  at  another,  attributed  them 
to  several  Causes  operating  independently;  at  another,  sup- 
posed the  whole  visible  creation  to  be  animated  by  one 
universal  all-pervading  spirit.  It  was  a  belief  which,  ac- 
cording to  the  character  and  inclination  of  the  worshipper, 
was  now  monotheism,  now  trithcism,  now  polytheism,  now 
pantheism.  But  it  was  not  yet  idolatry.  Though  the  forces 
of  nature  were  thought  of  as  controlled  by  divine  persons, 
such  persons  were  not  yet  idolized.  There  is  no  evidence 
from  the  Vedic  hymns  that  images  were  actually  worshipped, 
though  they  appear  to  have  been  occasionally  employed  ^ 

The  mode  of  divine  worship  continued  to  be  determined 
from  a  consideration  of  human  likings  and  dislikings.  Every 
worshipper  praised  the  gods  because  he  liked  to  be  praised 
himself.  He  honoured  them  with  offerings  because  he  liked 
to  receive  presents  himself.  He  pretended  to  feed  them  be- 
cause he  required  food  himself.  This  appears  to  have  been 
the  simple  origin  of  the  sacrificial  system — a  system  which  was 
afterwards  closely  interwoven  with  the  whole  Hindu  religion. 

^  For  example,  in  Rig-vcda  II.  11.  9  an  image  of  Rudra  is  alluded  to  ; 
and  in  I.  25.  13,  V.  52.  15,  visible  forms  of  some  kind  seem  implied. 


1 2  Vedism, 

What,  then,  were  the  various  ideas  expressed  by  the  term 
sacrifice?  In  its  purest  and  simplest  form  it  denoted  a  dedi- 
cation of  some  simple  gift  as  an  expression  of  gratitude  for 
blessings  received.  Soon  the  act  of  'making  sacred'  became 
an  act  of  propitiation  for  purely  selfish  ends.  The  favour  of 
celestial  beings  who  were  capable  of  conferring  good  or  in- 
flicting harm  on  crops,  flocks,  and  herds,  was  conciliated  by 
offerings  and  oblations  of  all  kinds,  and  especially  of  the 
products  of  the  soil. 

With  this  idea  the  gods  w^ere  invited  to  join  the  every-day 
family  meal.  Then  they  were  invoked  at  festive  gatherings, 
and  offered  a  share  of  the  food  consumed.  Their  bodies 
were  believed  to  be  composed  of  ethereal  particles,  dependent 
for  nourishment  on  the  invisible  elementary  essence  of  the 
substances  presented  to  them,  and  to  be  furnished  with 
senses  capable  of  being  gratified  by  the  aroma  of  butter 
and  grain  offered  in  fire  [JiomaY  \  and  especially  by  the 
fumes  arising  from  libations  of  the  exhilarating  juice  ex- 
tracted from  the  Soma  plant. 

This  plant — botanically  known  as  Sarcostcma  Viininalis,  or 
Asdepias  Acida,  a  kind  of  creeper  with  a  succulent  leafless  stem 
— which  was  indigenous  in  the  ancient  home  of  the  Aryans,  as 
well  as  in  the  soil  of  India  and  Persia,  supplied  an  invigorating 
beverage  supposed  to  confer  health  and  immortality,  and  held 
to  be  the  vital  sap  which  vivified  the  world.  Hence  its  juice 
became  an  important  ingredient  at  every  sacrifice,  and  was  the 
subject  of  constant  laudation  in  numerous  Vedic  hymns.  It 
was  believed  to  be  peculiarly  grateful  to  the  Rain-god  (Indra), 
while  oblations  of  butter  were  specially  presented  to  the  god 
of  fire.  Eventually  the  great  esteem  in  which  the  Soma  plant 
was  held  led  to  its  being  itself  personified  and  deified.  The 
god  Soma  was  once  the  Bacchus  of  India.  The  whole  ninth 
Book  of  the  Rig-veda  is  devoted  to  his  praise. 

^  Compare  Gen.  viii.  21. 


Vcdisin.  1 3 

And  yet  it  is  remarkable  that  this  sacred  plant  has  fallen 
into  complete  neglect  in  modern  times.  When  I  asked  the 
Brahmans  of  Northern  India  to  procure  specimens  of  the  true 
Soma  for  me,  I  was  told  that,  in  consequence  of  the  present 
sinful  condition  of  the  world,  the  holy  plant  had  ceased  to 
crow  on  terrestrial  soil,  and  was  only  to  be  found  in  heaven  ^ 

Nor  were  these  the  only  offerings.  In  process  of  time, 
animal  sacrifice  was  introduced.  At  great  solemnities  goats 
and  other  animals  were  killed  by  hundreds.  Portions  of  the 
flesh  were  consumed  in  the  fire,  and  portions  were  eaten. 
Gods,  priests,  and  people  feasted  together.  Of  course  all 
offerings  and  libations  were  accompanied  with  hymns  of 
praise.  A  certain  amount  of  ceremonial  was  gradually  added. 
The  whole  sacrificial  service  was  called  Yajna. 

I  close  this  sketch  of  Vedism  by  citing  portions  of  transla- 
tions of  a  few  remarkable  hymns  in  the  Rig-veda,  as  given  by 
mc  in  '  Indian  Wisdom.'  One  hymn  (Mandala  X.  129)  at- 
tempts to  describe  the  origin  of  creation  thus  :  — 

In  the  beginning  there  was  neither  nought  nor  aught; 

Then  there  was  neither  sky  nor  atmosphere  above. 

What  then  enshrouded  all  this  teeming  universe? 

In  the  receptacle  of  what  was  it  contained? 

Was  it  enveloped  in  the  gulf  profound  of  water  ? 

Then  was  there  neither  death  nor  immortality  ; 

Then  was  there  neither  day,  nor  night,  nor  light,  nor  darkness, 

Only  the  Existent  One  breathed  calmly,  self-contained. 

Nought  else  but  he  there  was — nought  else  above,  beyond. 

Then  first  came  darkness  hid  in  darkness,  gloom  in  gloom  ; 

Next  all  was  water,  all  a  chaos  indiscrete, 

In  which  the  One  lay  void,  shrouded  in  nothingness. 

Then  turning  inwards,  he  by  self-developed  force 

Of  inner  fervour  and  intense  abstraction,  grew. 

First  in  his  mind  was  formed  Desire,  the  primal  germ 

Productive,  which  the  Wise,  profoundly  searching,  say 

Is  the  first  subtle  bond,  connecting  Entity 

And  Nullity. 


'  A  creeper,  said  to  be  the  true  Soma,  was  pointed  out  to  me  by  the 
late  Dr.  BurncU  in  Southern  India,  and  is  still,  I  believe,  used  by  those 
orthodox  Brahmans  in  the  Maratha  country  who  attempt  to  maintain 
the  old  V'edic  worship. 


1 4  Vcdis7n. 

In  the  foregoing  hymn  we  detect  the  first  dim  outline  of  the 
later  philosophical  theories,  both  Sankhyan  and  Vedantic. 

The  idea  of  the  female  principle  as  necessary  to  the  act  of 
creation  is  also,  it  may  be  seen,  vaguely  implied — an  idea 
which  gathered  such  strength  subsequently  that  every  princi- 
pal deity  in  the  later  mythology  has  his  feminine  counterpart, 
who  shares  the  worship  paid  to  the  male  god,  and  who  some- 
times receives  the  greater  homage  of  the  two.  That  this  idea 
is  not  fully  developed  in  the  Rig-veda  is  proved  by  the  fact 
that  the  wives  of  the  chief  gods,  such  as  IndranI,  Agnayl,  etc., 
are  not  associated  with  their  husbands  as  objects  of  worship, 
and  even  Lakshml  and  SarasvatI,  though  named,  are  not 
adored. 

The  next  example  from  the  I2ist  hymn  of  the  tenth 
Mandala  is  often  quoted  to  furnish  an  argument  for  main- 
taining that  the  original  faith  of  the  Hindus  was  monotheistic. 
The  hymn  is  addressed  to  Hiranya-garbha,  a  form  of  the 
Supreme  Being,  no  doubt  originally  a  personification  of  the 
Sun.  In  the  Vedanta  philosophy,  Hiranya-garbha  represents 
the  third  condition  of  the  Supreme  Spirit  (see  p.  34).  In 
the  later  system  he  must  be  regarded  as  related  to  the  God 
Vishnu. 

What  god  shall  we  adore  with  sacrifice  ? 

Him  let  us  praise,  the  golden  child  that  rose 

In  the  beginning,  who  was  born  the  lord — 

The  one  sole  lord  of  all  that  is — who  made 

The  earth,  and  formed  the  sky,  who  giveth  life, 

Who  giveth  strength,  whose  bidding  gods  revere, 

Whose  hiding-place  is  immortality, 

Whose  shadow,  death  ;    who  by  his  might  is  king 

Of  all  the  breathing,  sleeping,  waking  world. 

Where'er  let  loose  in  space,  the  mighty  waters 

Have  gone,  depositing  a  fruitful  seed, 

And  generating  fire,  there  he  arose 

Who  is  the  breath  and  life  of  all  the  gods, 

Whose  mighty  glance  looks  round  the  vast  expanse 

Of  watery  vapour— source  of  energy, 

Cause  of  the  sacrifice — the  only  God 

Above  the  gods. 


Vcdism.  1 5 

The  following  is  a  portion  of  a  well-known  hymn  to  the 
Sky-god  (Varuna)  from  the  Atharva-veda  (IV.  16) :  — 

Tlie  miglity  A'aruna,  who  rules  above,  looks  down 

Upon  these  worlds,  his  kingdom,  as  if  close  at  hand. 

When  men  imagine  they  do  aught  by  stcahh,  he  knows  it. 

No  one  can  stand,  or  walk,  or  softly  glide  along, 

Or  hide  in  dark  recess,  or  lurk  in  secret  cell, 

But  Varuiia  detects  him,  and  his  movements  spies. 

Two  persons  may  devise  some  plot,  together  sitting, 

And  think  themselves  alone  ;  but  he,  the  king,  is  there— 

A  third — and  sees  it  all.     His  messengers  descend 

Countless  from  his  abode,  for  ever  traversing 

This  world,  and  scanning  with  a  thousand  eyes  its  inmates. 

Whate'er  exists  within  this  earth,  and  all  within  the  sky. 

Yea,  all  that  is  beyond,  king  Varuna  perceives. 

The  winkings  of  men's  eyes  are  numbered  all  by  him  : 

He  wields  the  universe  as  gamesters  handle  dice. 

Here  follow  portions   of  hymns  addressed   to   the  Vedic 
triad.     First,  the  Rain-god  (Indra) : — 

Indra,  twin-brother  of  the  god  of  fire, 

When  thou  wast  born,  thy  mother,  Aditi, 

Gave  thee,  her  lusty  child,  the  thrilling  draught 

Of  mountain-growing  Soma — source  of  life 

And  never-dying  vigour  to  thy  frame. 

Thou  art  our  guardian,  advocate,  and  friend, 

A  brother,  father,  mother — all  combined. 

Most  fatherly  of  fathers,  we  are  thine, 

And  thou  art  ours.     Oh  !  let  thy  pitying  soul 

Turn  to  us  in  compassion  when  we  praise  thee, 

And  slay  us  not  for  one  sin  or  for  many. 

Deliver  us  to-day,  to-morrow,  every  day. 

Vainly  the  demon  ^  dares  thy  might,  in  vain 

Strives  to  deprive  us  of  thy  watery  treasures. 

Earth  quakes  beneath  the  crashing  of  thy  bolts. 

Pierced,  shattered  lies  the  foe — his  cities  crushed. 

His  armies  overthrown,  his  fortresses 

Shivered  to  fragments  ;   then  the  pent-up  waters, 

Released  from  long  imprisonment,  descend 

In  torrents  to  the  earth,  and  swollen  rivers, 

Foaming  and  rolling  to  their  ocean-home. 

Proclaim  the  triumph  of  the  Thunderer. 


'  The  demon  Vritra,  who  is  supposed  to  keep  the  waters  imprisoned 

in  thick  clouds. 


1 6  Vedisni. 

Secondly,  the  Fire-god  (Agiii) : — 

Agni,  thou  art  a  sage,  a  priest,  a  king, 

Protector,  father  of  the  sacrifice. 

Commissioned  by  us  men,  thou  dost  ascend 

A  messenger,  conveying  to  the  sky 

Our  hymns  and  offerings.     Though  thy  origin 

Be  threefold,  now  from  air,  and  now  from  water, 

Now  from  the  mystic  double  Arani, 

Thou  art  thyself  a  mighty  god,  a  lord, 

Giver  of  life  and  immortality, 

One  in  thy  essence,  but  to  mortals  three  ; 

Displaying  thine  eternal  triple  form. 

As  fire  on  earth,  as  lightning  in  the  air, 

As  sun  in  heaven.     Thou  art  the  cherished  guest 

In  every  household — father,  brother,  son, 

Friend,  benefactor,  guardian,  all  in  one. 

Deliver,  mighty  lord,  thy  worshippers. 

Purge  us  from  taint  of  sin,  and  when  we  die, 

Deal  mercifully  with  us  on  the  pyre, 

Burning  our  bodies  with  their  load  of  guilt, 

But  bearing  our  eternal  part  on  high 

To  luminous  abodes  and  realms  of  bliss. 

For  ever  there  to  dwell  with  righteous  men. 

Thirdly,  the  Sun-god  (Surya) : — 

Behold  the  rays  of  Dawn,  like  heralds,  lead  on  high 

The  Sun,  that  men  may  see  the  great  all-knowing  God. 

The  stars  slink  off  like  thieves,  in  company  with  Night, 

Before  the  all-seeing  eye,  whose  beams  reveal  his  presence, 

Gleaming  like  brilliant  flames,  to  nation  after  nation. 

Siirya,  with  flaming  locks,  clear-sighted  god  of  day, 

Thy  seven  ruddy  mares  bear  on  thy  rushing  car. 

With  these  thy  self-yoked  steeds,  seven  daughters  of  thy  chariot, 

Onward  thou  dost  advance.     To  thy  refulgent  orb 

Beyond  this  lower  gloom,  and  upward  to  the  light 

Would  we  ascend,  O  Sun,  thou  god  among  the  gods. 

The  thoughts  contained  in  various  hymns  addressed  to  the 

'god  of  departed  spirits'  (Yama)  are  so  remarkable  that  a  few 

are  here  given  : — 

To  Yama,  mighty  king,  be  gifts  and  homage  paid. 
He  was  the  first  of  men  that  died,  the  first  to  brave 
Death's  rapid  rushing  stream,  the  first  to  point  the  road 
To  heaven,  and  welcome  others  to  that  bright  abode. 
No  power  can  rob  us  of  the  home  thus  won  by  thee. 


Vcdism.  1 7 

O  king,  \vc  come  ;  the  born  must  die,  must  tread  the  path 
That  thou  hast  trod— the  path  by  which  each  race  of  men, 
In  long  succession,  and  our  fathers,  too,  have  passed. 
Soul  of  the  dead  !    depart  ;    fear  not  to  take  the  road — 
The  ancient  road — by  which  thy  ancestors  have  gone  ; 
Ascend  to  meet  the  god — to  meet  thy  happy  fathers, 
Who  dwell  in  bliss  with  him.     Fear  not  to  pass  the  guards — 
The  four-eyed  brindled  dogs— that  watch  for  the  departed. 
Return  unto  tliy  home,  O  soul  !     Thy  sin  and  shame 
Leave  thou  behind  on  earth  ;  assume  a  shining  form — 
Thy  ancient  shape— refined  and  from  all  taint  set  free. 

I  add  a  few  verses  from  the  celebrated  Purusha  hymn  (Rig- 
veda,  Mandala  X.  90,  translated  by  me  in  '  Indian  Wisdom,' 
p.  24).  It  illustrates  the  intertwining  of  polytheism,  mono- 
theism, and  pantheism.  It  also  foreshadows  the  idea  of  sacri- 
fice, as  well  as  the  institution  of  caste\  which  for  so  many 
centuries  has  held  India  in  bondage.  The  one  Spirit  is  sup- 
posed to  take  a  body  and  then  allow  himself  to  be  sacrificed. 

The  embodied  spirit  has  a  thousand  heads, 

A  thousand  eyes,  a  thousand  feet,  around 

On  every  side  enveloping  the  earth. 

Yet  filling  space  no  larger  than  a  span. 

He  is  himself  this  very  universe  ; 

He  is  whatever  is,  has  been,  and  shall  be  ; 

He  is  the  lord  of  immortality. 

All  creatures  are  one-fourth  of  him,  three-fourths 

Are  that  which  is  immortal  in  the  sky. 

From  him,  called  Purusha,  was  born  Viraj, 

And  from  Viraj  was  Purusha  produced, 

Whom  gods  and  holy  men  made  their  oblation. 

With  Purusha  as  victim,  they  performed 

A  sacrifice.     When  they  divided  him, 

How  did  they  cut  him  up  ?     What  was  his  mouth  ? 

What  were  his  arms  ?   and  what  his  thighs  and  feet  ? 

The  Brahman  was  his  mouth,  the  kingly  soldier 

Was  made  his  arms,  the  husbandman  his  thighs, 

The  servile  Sudra  issued  from  his  feet. 

For  further  examples  and  a  fuller  account  of  the  Veda 
I  must  refer  the  reader  to  the  first  part  of 'Indian  Wisdom' 

'  This  hymn  (generally  admitted  to  be  a  comparatively  modern  pro- 
duction) is  the  only  hymn  in  the  Rig-veda  which  alludes  to  the  distinctions 
of  caste. 

C 


1 8  Vcdism. 

(Lectures  I  and  II)  \  Let  me  warn  him,  in  conclusion,  that 
the  above  examples  would,  if  taken  alone,  encourage  a  false 
estimate  of  the  merits  of  the  Vedic  hymns.  Although  the 
majority  of  the  Hindus  believe  that  the  four  Vedas  contain 
all  that  is  good,  great,  and  divine,  yet  these  compositions 
will  be  found,  when  taken  as  a  whole,  to  abound  more  in 
puerile  ideas  than  in  lofty  conceptions.  At  the  same  time 
it  is  clear  that  they  give  no  support  to  any  of  the  present 
objectionable  usages  and  customs  for  which  they  were  once, 
through  ignorance  of  their  contents,  supposed  to  be  an  au- 
thority. The  doctrine  of  metempsychosis  or  transmigration 
of  souls,  which  became  an  essential  characteristic  ofBrah- 
manism  and  Hinduism  in  later  times,  has  no  place  in  the 
religion  of  the  Veda  2.  Nor  do  the  hymns  give  any  sanction 
to  the  prohibition  of  widow-marriages,  the  general  prevalence 
of  child-marriages,  the  tyrannical  sway  of  caste,  the  interdic- 
tion of  foreign  travel,  and  the  practice  of  idolatry. 

The  social  condition  of  the  people  was  by  no  means 
low.  They  had  attained  to  considerable  civilization.  They 
were  rich  in  flocks  and  herds ;  they  well  understood  the 
principles  of  agriculture ;  they  were  able  to  build  towns  and 
fortified  places  ;  they  had  some  knowledge  of  various  arts 
and  of  working  in  metals;  they  engaged  in  philosophical 
speculations ;  they  had  rulers,  and  a  political  system ;  they 
were  separated  into  classes,  though  they  were  not  yet  divided 
off  by  iron  barriers  of  caste  ;  polygamy  existed,  though  mono- 
gamy was  the  rule;  they  killed  animals  for  sacrifice;  they 
were  in  the  habit  of  eating  animal  food,  and  did  not  even 
object  to  the  flesh  of  cows;  they  were  fond  of  gambling,  and 
indulged  in  intoxicating  beverages. 

'  The  last  edition  of  this  work  (originally  published  by  Messrs.  W.  H. 
Allen  and  Co.)  is  nearly  exhausted,  but  copies  may  still  be  had  by  applying 
to  Mr.  Bernard  Quaritch,  of  15  Piccadilly. 

2  It  is  true  that  in  Manclala  I.  164.  32  bahii-prajah  is  explained  by 
bahn-janma-hhak,  'subject  to  many  births;'  but  it  really  means  'having 
abundant  offspring.' 


VcdisfJi.  1 9 

And  it  is  to  be  observed  that,  just  as  the  children  of 
Israel  found  the  land  of  Canaan  pre-occupied  by  Hittites, 
Perizzites,  and  Philistines,  so  the  Aryan  imnjigrants,  when 
they  advanced  into  India,  found  the  soil  held  by  previous 
races,  variously  called  Dasyus,  Anaryas,  Nishadas,  and  Dra- 
vidas,  and  even  by  more  primitive  aboriginal  tribes,  contact 
and  intercourse  with  whom  very  soon  affected  them  socially, 
morally,  and  religiously. 

Monsieur  A.  Earth,  whose  work  on  the  religions  of  India 
is  a  most  meritorious  productions  comes  to  the  conclusion 
that  the  Vedic  hymns  give  evidence  of  an  exalted  morality, 
and  draws  attention  to  the  fact  that  they  acknowledge  no 
wicked  divinities.  Worship  of  the  gods  was  performed  by 
sacrifice  (yajua),  invocation  (avahana),  prayer  (prarthana), 
praise  (stuti),  and  meditation  (upasana) ;  and,  as  we  shall  see 
in  the  next  chapter,  the  name  Brahman  (nom.  Brahma),  which 
was  ultimately  applied  to  the  one  Universal  Spirit,  was  often 
identified  with  Prayer. 

Finally  be  it  observed  that  the  most  sacred  and  the  most 
universally  used  —  even  in  the  present  day — of  all  Vedic 
prayers  is  that  composed  in  the  Gayatrl  metre,  and  thence 
called  Gayatrl,  or,  as  addressed  to  the  Vivifying  Sun-god, 
SavitrT : — '  Let  us  meditate  on  that  excellent  glory  of  the 
Divine  Vivifier ;  may  he  enlighten  our  understandings^' (see 
pp.  403,  406  of  this  volume).  Yet  the  author,  or,  as  a  Brah- 
man would  say,  the  Seer  (Rishi),  of  this  celebrated  prayer 
was  Visvamitra— a  man  originally  of  the  Kshatriya  or  mili- 
tary caste,  once  opposed  to  the  Brahmanical. 

^  Some  of  the  opinions  of  this  scholar  are  quite  new.  He  sees  no 
'primitive  natural  simplicity'  in  the  hymns,  and  denies  that  the  Vedas 
represent  the  general  belief  of  a  race. 

■^  Tat  Savitur  varenyam  bhargo  devasya  dhlmahi,  Dhiyo  yo  nal.i 
pracodayat  (Rig-veda  III.  62.  10).  In  my  opinion  the  Sandhyfi  (p.  401) 
derives  its  name  from  the  root  dhl  for  dhyai,  'to  meditate,'  in  this  prayer. 


C  2 


CHAPTER    II. 

BraJmianism: 

The  second  phase  of  the  Hindu  religion  may  be  suitably- 
called  Brahmanism.  The  Brahmans  themselves  would  pro- 
bably call  both  phases  Arya-dharma,  'the  system  of  the  Aryas' 
(or  perhaps  Vaidika-dharma,  or,  according  to  Patafijali  I.  i.  i, 
Rishi-sampradayo  dharmah). 

As  Brahmanism  was  the  outgrowth  of  Vedism,  so  it  cannot 
be  separated  from  it  by  any  hard  line  of  demarcation.  Its 
development  was  gradual,  and  extended  over  many  centuries 
—  perhaps  from  the  eighth  century  before  Christ  to  the 
twelfth  century  after  Christ. 

The  crystallization  of  its  cardinal  doctrine  into  definite 
shape  is  clearly  traceable.  In  Vedic  times  there  was,  as  we 
have  seen,  a  perpetual  feeling  after  one  Supreme  Being,  if 
haply  He  might  be  found  in  sky  or  air.  The  hymn-com- 
posers constantly  gave  expression  to  man's  craving  for  some 
perception  of  the  Infinite.  For  the  satisfaction  of  this  craving 
they  turned  to  personifications  of  the  Sky,  Sun,  Fire,  Air, 
Water,  Earth. 

What  the  deepest  thinkers,  even  at  that  early  period,  felt 
with  ever-increasing  intensity  was  that  a  Spirit  (Atman), 
beyond  the  cognizance  of  sense,  permeated  and  breathed 
through  all  material  things.  They  bethought  them  with 
awe  of  this  same  Spirit  vivifying  their  own  bodies  with 
the  breath  'of  life — of  this  mysterious  Presence  enshrined  in 
their  own  consciences.  Then  they  identified  this  same  Spirit 
with  the  divine  afflatus  thrilling  through  the  imaginations 
of  their  own  hymn-composers — with  the  spiritual  efficacy  of 
the  hymns  themselves,  with  the  mystic  power  inherent  in 
divine  knowledge  and  prayer.    This  mysterious,  all-pervading, 


Ritualistic  Bralunanisni.  2 1 

vayuc  spiritual  Power  and  Presence,  which  was  wholly  un- 
bound by  limitations  of  personality  and  individuality,  became 
at  last  a  reality.  This  Breath  of  Life  (Atman)  received  a 
name.  They  called  it  Brahman  (nominative  neuter  Brahma, 
from  the  root  dri/i,  '  to  expand '),  because  it  expanded  itself 
through  all  space.  It  was  a  pure  essence  which  not  only 
diffused  itself  everywhere,  but  constituted  their  own  being. 
Men  and  gods  were  merely  manifestations  of  that  Spirit. 

Such  was  the  fundamental  doctrine  of  Brahmanism.  Such 
was  Brahmanism  in  its  earliest  origin.  As  a  complex  system 
it  may  be  regarded  as  possessing  four  sides,  or,  more  properly 
speaking,  four  phases  which  run  into  each  other  and  are 
nowhere  separable  by  sharply  defined  lines.  These  four 
phases  may  be  called  (i)  Ritualistic,  (2)  Philosophical,  (3) 
Mythological,   (4)  Nomistic. 

Ritualistic  BraJimanism. 

This  phase  of  the  Brrdimanical  system  has  for  its  special 
bible  the  sacred  treatises  called  Brahmanas,  added  to  the 
Mantra  or  Hymn  portion  of  each  Veda  (for  example,  the 
Aitareya,  Satapatha,  Tandya,  and  Gopatha  Brfdimanas 
added  to  the  Rig,  Yajur,  Sama,  and  Atharva  Vedas  respect- 
ively). They  consist  of  a  series  of  rambling  prose  compo- 
sitions, the  oldest  of  which  may  have  been  written  seven 
or  eight  centuries  B.  C.  Their  relationship  to  the  Vedic 
h}-mns  resembles  in  some  respects  that  of  the  book  of 
Leviticus  to  the  Psalms  in  our  own  sacred  Scriptures.  They 
are  an  integral  portion  of  the  Veda,  and  are  supposed  to 
contain  that  portion  of  divine  knowledge  or  revelation  par- 
ticularly adapted  to  serve  as  a  directory  for  the  Brfdimans 
in  the  conduct  of  the  complicated  sacrificial  ceremonies. 
For  if  it  was  deemed  necessary  in  the  early  Vedic  period 
to  propitiate  and  maintain  the  energies  of  nature  by  means 
of  invigorating  offerings  of  food,  it  was  not  likely  that  such 


2  2  Ritualistic  Brd/inianism. 

ofiferings  would  be  dispensed  with  when  these  same  energies 
were  personalized  as  divine  manifestations  of  the  one  Spirit. 
In  fact  the  necessity  for  sacrificial  acts  [karmaii)  to  secure 
the  favour  of  the  gods  became  ingrained  in  the  whole  Brah- 
manical  system.  Not  even  Jewish  literature  contains  so 
many  words  relating  to  sacrifice  as  the  literature  of  the  Brah- 
mans.  The  due  presentation  of  sacrificial  offerings  formed 
the  very  kernel  of  all  religious  service.  Hymn,  praise,  and 
prayer,  preaching,  teaching,  and  repetition  of  the  sacred 
words  of  scripture  were  only  subsidiary  to  this  act.  Every 
man  throughout  his  whole  life  rested  his  whole  hopes  on  con- 
tinually offering  oblations  of  some  kind  to  the  gods  in  fire, 
and  the  burning  of  his  body  at  death  was  held  to  be  the 
last  offering  of  himself  in  fire  (antya  ishti  or  antyeshti). 

But  the  idea  of  the  great  efficacy  of  sacrifice  was  developed 
gradually.  In  the  Brahmanical,  as  in  the  earlier  system,  the 
first  aim  of  sacrifice  was  to  present  a  simple  thank-offering. 
The  second  great  aim  was  to  nourish  the  gods  with  the 
essence  of  the  offered  food,  and  so  strengthen  them  for  their 
daily  duty  of  maintaining  the  continuity  of  the  universe. 
The  next  idea  was  that  of  making  these  oblations  of  food 
the  means  of  wresting  boons  from  the  invigorated  and  grati- 
fied deities,  and  so  accomplishing  some  specific  earthly  object, 
such,  for  example,  as  the  birth  of  a  son.  A  still  more  am- 
bitious idea  was  that  of  employing  sacrifice  as  an  instrument 
for  the  attainment  of  superhuman  powers  and  even  exaltation 
to  heaven. 

All  this  involved  the  elaboration  of  a  complicated  ritual, 
and  the  organization  of  a  regularly  constituted  hierarchy. 
To  institute  a  sacrificial  rite  (such  as  the  Asvamedha,  Jyoti- 
shtoma,  Agnishtoma,  Aptoryama,  Vajapeya,  '  strengthening 
drink'),  and  to  secure  its  being  carefully  conducted  with  the 
proper  repetition  and  intonation  of  innumerable  hymns  and 
texts  from  the  Veda,  and  the  accurate  observance  of  every 
detail  of  an  intricate  ritual  by  a  full  complement  of  perhaps 


Ritualistic  BraJniianisin.  23 

sixteen  different  classes  of  priests,  every  one  of  whom  received 
adequate  gifts,  was  the  great  object  of  every  pious  Hindu's 
highest  ambition.  The  whole  course  of  prayer,  praise,  ritual, 
and  oblation — sometimes  lasting  for  weeks  and  even  years — 
though  called,  as  in  Vedic  times,  Yajna,  'sacrifice,'  was  very 
inadequately  expressed  by  that  term.  It  was  a  protracted 
religious  service  which  could  only  be  compared  to  an  intricate 
piece  of  mechanism.  It  was  a  chain  of  which  every  link 
required  to  be  complete  and  perfect  in  all  its  parts.  It  could 
then  effect  anything  in  this  world  or  the  other.  It  was  the 
great  preservative  from  all  evil,  the  great  maintainer  of  the 
energies  of  the  Univ^erse,  the  great  source  of  all  benefits.  It 
could  procure  a  whole  line  of  sons  and  grandsons  \  or  secure 
the  attainment  of  the  highest  heaven,  or  even  raise  the  sacri- 
ficer  to  the  level  of  the  highest  deities.  It  was  even  believed 
that  the  gods  themselves  had  attained  their  celestial  position 
by  performing  sacrifices.  '  By  sacrifices,'  says  the  Taittirlya- 
brahmana,  'the  gods  obtained  heaven.' 

The  most  preposterous  of  all  the  ideas  connected  with  the 
sacrificial  act  was  that  of  making  it  the  first  act  of  creation. 
In  the  Purusha  hymn  of  the  Rig-veda  (X.  90)  the  gods  are 
represented  as  cutting  up  and  sacrificing  Purusha,  the  pri- 
meval Male,  and  then  forming  the  whole  Universe  from  his 
head  and  limbs  (see  p.  17).  The  Tandya-brahmana  makes 
the  lord  of  creatures  offer  himself  up  as  a  sacrifice.  Even 
Sacrifice  (Yajna)  itself  was  sometimes  personified  as  a  god. 

Lastly,  the  shedding  of  blood  was  believed  by  some  to 
atone  for  sin.  The  limb  of  the  victim  consigned  to  the  fire 
was  thought  to  be  an  expiation  for  sins  committed  by  the 
gods,  by  the  fathers,  and  by  men.  The  innocent  w^as  sup^ 
]y)c;od  to  hf  killed  for  the  guilty ;  but  this  belief  never  became 
general. 

^  An  uninterrupted  line  of  sons,  grandsons,  and  great-grandsons  was 
needed  for  the  due  performance  of  funeral  rites,  through  which  alone 
the  heavenly  bliss  of  departed  spirits  could  be  secured. 


24  Ritualistic  Brahinanism. 

Indeed  it  is  evident  that  human  sacrifice  was  once  part 
of  the  Brahmanical  system.  The  Aitareya-brahmana  (VII. 
13)  has  a  well-known  story — the  story  of  Hariscandra  and 
Sunahsepa  —  which  points  to  its  prevalence.  The  same 
Brahmana  records  the  substitution  of  the  sacrifice  of  four 
kinds  of  animals — horses,  oxen,  sheep,  and  goats — for  that 
of  men.  Sometimes  immense  numbers  of  animals  were  tied 
to  sacrificial  posts  {yiipa),  some  being  killed  and  some  liber- 
ated at  the  end  of  the  ceremony. 

One  of  the  most  noteworthy  ideas  to  be  found  in  the 
Brahmanas  is  that  the  gods  were  merely  mortal  till  they 
conquered  Death  by  sacrifices.  Death  is  thereupon  alarmed 
lest  men  should  also  be  victorious  over  him  and  deprive 
him  of  all  his  rights ;  but  the  gods  promise  that  those  who 
perform  sacrifices  should  not  become  immortal  without  first 
offering  him  their  bodies,  and  that  all  who  omit  to  sacrifice 
should  be  born  again,  and  present  him  their  bodies  in  innu- 
merable successive  births.  This  proves  that  the  doctrine 
of  transmigration  was  beginning  to  be  developed  at  this 
period. 

The  following  free  translation  of  a  passage  of  the  Sata- 
patha-brahmana  is  from  '  Indian  Wisdom,'  p.  34 : — 

The  gdSs  lived  constantly  in  dread  of  Death — 

The  mighty  Ender — so  with  toilsome  rites 

They  worshipped  and  repeated  sacrifices 

Till  they  became  immortal.     Then  the  Ender 

Said  to  the  gods,  '  As  ye  have  made  yourselves 

Imperishable,  so  will  men  endeavour 

To  free  themselves  from  me  ;    what  portion  then 

Shall  I  possess  in  man  ?'     The  gods  replied, 

'  Henceforth  no  being  shall  become  immortal 

In  his  own  body  ;    this  his  mortal  frame 

Shalt  thou  still  seize  ;    this  shall  remain  thy  own, 

This  shall  become  perpetually  thy  food. 

And  even  he  who  through  religious  acts 

Henceforth  attains  to  immortality 

Shall  first  present  his  body,  Death,  to  thee.' 

It  is  certainly  remarkable  that  the  idea  of  sacrifice  as  an 


PhilosopJiical  Byahma)iism,  25 

atonement  for  sin  seems  never  to  have  taken  firm  liold  of  the 
Hindu  mind.  Goats  were  generally  sacrificed  by  Vaidika 
Bnlhmans  at  their  Soma-yagas,  but  only  in  connexion  with 
the  central  offering  of  the  Soma  or  liquor  of  immortality,  and 
only  under  the  idea  of  nourishing  the  gods  with  strengthening 
food.  Fire  was  the  chief  god,  not  only  because  he  was  visibly 
present,  but  because  he  carried  up  the  essence  of  the  oblation 
to  the  other  gods.  In  later  times  sacrifice  changed  its  cha- 
racter and  its  name.  It  was  called  Bali.  Goats  and  buffaloes 
are  now  immolated  by  Pauranikas  and  Tantrikas,  but  only  with 
the  view  of  appeasing  and  satisfying  their  bloodthirsty  goddess 
Kali,  and  certainly  not  with  any  idea  of  effacing  guilt  or 
making  a  vicarious  offering  for  sin.  For  the  ordinary  Hindu 
wholly  rejects  the  notion  of  trusting  to  anything  for  salvation 
but  his  own  self-righteousness. 

PJiilosophical  Brdhmanism. 

The  second  phase  of  Brahmanism,  called  Philosophical 
Brahmanism,  cannot  be  marked  off  by  any  decided  line  from 
the  other  phases  of  Hindu  religious  thought.  Its  rudimentary 
ideas  are  found  running  through  the  earlier  system,  and  even 
had  their  germ  in  Vcdism.  It  is  the  purely  spiritual  doc- 
trine of  a  universally  diffused  essence  (Brahma),  divested  of 
all  ritualistic  incrustations,  and  carried  into  lofty  regions  of 
transcendental  speculation. 

In  fact,  a  reaction  from  an  overdone  ritual  was  inevitable. 
People  became  wearied  with  sacrifices  and  sacrificers.  The 
minds  of  thinking  men  found  no  rest  in  external  rites  and 
turned  away  with  disgust  from  every  form  of  sacerdotalism. 
It  only  remained  to  take  refuge  in  speculative  inquiries  and 
metaphysical  investigations.  If  every  man  was  a  part  of 
God,  what  necessity  was  there  that  God  should  propitiate 
himself?  If  a  portion  of  the  one  self-existent  Spirit  chose 
for  a  time  to  ignore  itself,  to  invest  itself  with  a  body,  to 


26  Philosophical  Brakmanism. 

fetter  itself  with  actions  and  their  inevitable  results,  the 
consequences  could  only  be  borne  by  itself  in  its  passage 
through  numberless  births.  Nor  could  there  be  any  final 
emancipation  from  a  continued  succession  of  corporeal  ex- 
istences, till  action  ceased  and  the  consciousness  of  identity 
with  the  one  universal  Spirit  returned.  The  result  of  this 
introspective  process  was  the  excogitation  of  the  Upanishads 
or  hidden  spiritual  doctrine  of  the  Veda. 

The  Upanishads  are  the  special  bible  of  this  phase  of 
Brahmanism.  Many  treatises  so  called  were  added  to  the 
Mantra  and  Brahmana  portion  of  the  Veda  (such  as  the  Isa, 
Chandogya,  Katha,  Mundaka,  and  Brlhad-aranyaka  Upani- 
shads). The  aphorisms  (sutras)  of  the  three  systems  of  philo- 
sophy with  their  three  branches  (that  is,  the  Nyaya  with 
Vaiseshika ;  Sahkhya  with  Yoga ;  Vedanta  with  Mimansa) 
were  founded  on  these  writings. 

They  were  compositions  which  expressed  the  desire  of  the 
personal  soul  or  spirit  [jiva  or  jivdtinan)  for  deliverance  from 
a  long  series  of  separate  existences  and  from  liability  to  pass 
through  an  infinite  variety  of  bodies — gods,  men,  animals, 
plants,  stones — and  its  longing  for  final  union  with  the  Su- 
preme Soul  or  Spirit  of  the  Universe  [Atman,  afterwards  called 
Brahman).  And  here  it  maybe  noted  that  Philosophical  Brah- 
manism was  not  philosophy  in  the  European  sense  of  the 
word.  It  was  no  mere  search  for  truth,  for  truth's  sake.  It 
was  rather  a  form  of  mystical  religious  speculation.  Nor 
was  it  an  expression  of  the  soul's  desire  to  be  released  from 
the  burden  of  sin.  It  was  rather  an  inquiry  into  the  best 
method  of  escape  from  the  troubles  of  life,  and  of  deliver- 
ance from  the  necessity  of  transmigration  ;  the  dread  of 
continued  metempsychosis  being  the  one  haunting  thought 
which  colours  the  whole  texture  of  Indian  philosophy.  If 
an  Indian  metaphysician  sets  himself  to  inquire  into  the 
nature  of  spirit  and  matter,  and  their  relation  to  each  other, 
his  investigations  are  sure  to  be   conducted   with    the   sole 


PhUosophical  Drahniaiiism.  27 

object  of  liberating  the  spirit  of  man  from  the  bondage  of 
repeated  bodily  existence,  and  reuniting  it  with  the  Supreme 
Spirit  as  a  river  is  reunited  with  the  ocean.  This  is  called 
the  way  of  knowledge  {jiidna).  This  constitutes  the  right 
measure  {praina)  of  all  difficulties.  This  is  the  summum 
bonum  of  Brahmanical  philosophy. 

What,  then,  are  the  articles  of  a  Hindu  philosopher's 
creed?  They  are  the  doctrines  which  to  this  day  underlie 
the  religious  belief  of  the  majority  of  thinking  Hindus,  to 
whatever  sect  or  system  they  may  nominally  belong. 

Most  Hindu  thinkers  agree  that  spirit  or  souP  is  eternal, 
both  retrospectively  and  prospectively.  The  Spirit  of  God 
and  the  spirit  of  man  must  have  existed  and  must  continue 
to  exist  from  all  eternity.  The  two  spirits  are  not  really 
distinct;  so  says  the  Vedantist.  The  living  spirit  of  man  (jiva) 
— the  human  Self  (Atman)— is  identical  with  God's  Spirit. 
It  is  that  Spirit  limited  and  personalized  by  the  power  of 
Illusion  ;  and  the  life  of  every  living  spirit  is  nothing  but  an 
infinitesimal  arc  of  the  one  endless  circle  of  infinite  existence. 

Again,  Hindu  philosophers  agree  that  mind  (manas)  is 
distinct  from  spirit  or  soul.  Mind  is  not  eternal  in  the 
same  way.  It  is  an  internal  organ,  standing  between  the 
five  organs  of  perception  and  the  five  organs  of  action, 
belonging  to  both,  regulating  the  functions  of  both  and  re- 
ceiving the  impressions  conveyed  by  both.  These  functions 
are  perception  (buddhi)  and  volition  (saiikalpa,  vikalpa) 
respectively.  Hence  the  spirit  cannot  exercise  perception, 
consciousness,  thought,  or  will,  unless  joined  to  mind  and 
invested  with  a  bodily  covering  or  vehicle. 

And  of  actual  bodily  coverings  there  are  two  : — first,  the 


^  It  is  generally  better  to  translate  the  philosophical  terms  Atman, 
Brahman,  and  Purusha  by  'spirit'  rather  than  by  'soul,'  because  the 
expression  'soul'  is  liable  to  convey  the  idea  of  thinking  and  feeling, 
whereas  pure  Atman,  Brahman,  and  Purusha  neither  think,  nor  feel, 
nor  are  conscious.     The  translation  '  Self  is  sometimes  more  suitable. 


28  Philosophical  Brahmanism. 

subtle  body^  {li''>g(i  or  sukshma-sarira  or  ativahika),  which 
incloses  a  portion  of  the  universal  spirit  in  a  kind  of  subtle 
or  tenuous  envelope^,  constituting  it  a  living  individual  per- 
sonal soul  [jlvdtman),  and  carrying  it  through  all  its  corpo- 
real migrations  till  its  final  reunion  with  its  source  ;  secondly, 
the  gross  body  {stJulla-sarira)^  which  surrounds  the  spirit's 
subtle  vehicle,  and  is  of  various  forms  in  the  various  stages 
and  conditions  of  existence  through  animate  or  inanimate, 
organic  or  inorganic  life. 

And  mark  that  the  gross  body  is  of  three  kinds — divine, 
earthly,  and  intermediate  —  the  latter  being  that  peculiar 
frame  with  which  the  departed  spirit,  along  with  its  subtle 
frame,  is  invested  after  the  burning  of  the  earthly  gross 
body,  and  during  the  interval  preceding  the  assumption  of 
another  earthly  gross  body.  This  intermediate  body  (com- 
monly called  preta-sarira,  the  dead  man's  body)  serves,  as 
it  were,  to  support  and,  as  it  were,  to  clothe  the  departed 
spirit  during  its  several  residences  in  the  world  of  spirits 
[pi/ri-loka) ;  "whence  its  philosophical  name  Adhishthana- 
deha.  It  is  of  the  same  nature,  though  inferior  to  the  divine 
body  of  the  gods  ;  and,  though,  like  that  divine  body,  really 
composed  of  gross  (sthula)  particles,  is  of  a  more  ethereal 
substance  than  the  earthly  body.  Without  it  the  spirit  would 
be  incapable  of  enjoying  bliss  or  suffering  misery  in  the  inter- 
mediate temporary  paradise,  or  purgatory^,  through  which  all 
spirits  have  to  pass  before  assuming  new  terrestrial  bodies. 

And  be  it  noted  that  the  union  of  spirit  with  a  succession 
of  bodily  forms  is  dreaded  as  the  worst  form  of  bondage. 
The   spirit,   so   united,   commences   acting,  and   all   actions, 

^  In  the  Vedanta  system  there  are  three  bodily  coverings,  the  Causal 
body  (Karana-sarlra)  coming  first  ;  but  this  is  merely  another  name  for 
Ajiiana  (see  p.  35),  and  can  scarcely  be  regarded  as  a  material  substance. 

"^  Its  minuteness  is  denoted  by  its  being  described  as  'of  the  size  of 
a  thumb'  {afigushijui-indtra),  though  some  apply  this  expression  to  the 
intermediate  body. 

^  The  heaven  and  hell  of  orthodox  Brahmanism  are  only  temporary. 


Philosophical  Brcthmanism.  29 

good  or  bad,  lead  to  consequences,  and  these  consequences 
must  have  their  adequate  rewards  or  punishments.  It  is  on 
this  account  that  the  spirit  must  of  necessity  be  removed 
to  temporary  heavens  or  hells.  Thence  it  must  migrate  into 
higher,  intermediate,  and  lower  corporeal  forms,  according 
to  its  various  degrees  of  merit  or  demerit,  till  it  attains  the 
great  end — entire  emancipation  from  the  bondage  of  repeated 
bodily  existence,  and  reabsorption  into  the  one  Spirit  of  the 
Universe. 

With  regard  to  the  external  world,  it  is  a  fixed  dogma  of 
every  Plindu  philosopher  that  ex  nihilo  nihil  fit — nothing 
is  produced  out  of  nothing.  Therefore,  the  external  world  is 
eternal.  But  according  to  one  view,  the  external  world  is 
evolved  out  of  an  eternally  existing  productive  germ  united  to 
eternally  existing  individual  Spirits.  According  to  another,  it 
is  evolved  out  of  the  Illusion  which  overspreads  the  one 
eternal  Spirit,  and  becomes  one  with  it,  though  having  no  real 
existence.  These  two  theories  in  regard  to  the  creation  of  the 
world — the  first  represented  in  the  Saiikhya  system,  the  second 
in  the  Vedanta  system — are  both  of  great  antiquity. 

The  first  shadowing  forth  of  the  mystery  of  the  creation  of 
male  and  female,  and  of  the  living  world  through  their  union, 
is  traceable  in  some  of  the  Vedic  hymns.  The  well-known 
hymn  of  the  Rig-veda  (X.  129,  4),  already  quoted,  asserts  that 
first  '  in  that  One  Being  arose  Desire,  which  was  the  primal 
germ  of  Mind,  and  which  the  wise,  searching  out  in  their 
thoughts,  discovered  to  be  the  subtle  bond  connecting  Entity 
with  Non-entity.' 

i^gain,  the  Satapatha-Brahmana  (XIV.  4.  2.  4,  etc.)  and 
Brihad-aranyaka  Upanishad  (I.  3)  declare  that  '  the  Supreme 
Being  was  not  happy,  being  alone.  He  wished  for  a  second. 
He  caused  his  own  self  to  fall  in  twain,  and  thus  became 
husband  and  wife.  He  approached  her^  and  thus  were  human 
beings  produced'  (see  p.  182}. 

In  this  latter  passage  is  the  first  clear  statement  of  a  duality 


30  Philosophical  Brahmanism. 

in  the  divine  unity — an  idea  ingrained  in  the  Hindu  mind 
quite  as  strongly  as  the  doctrine  of  a  Trinity  in  Unity  is  in 
the  mind  of  Christian  theologians — an  idea,  too,  which  had 
been  previously  adumbrated  in  the  supposed  marriage  of 
Heaven  and  Earth  for  the  production  of  gods,  men,  and  all 
creatures. 

The  idea  was  expanded  in  the  mythical  cosmogony  of 
Manu,  Book  I.  5,  etc.  There  it  is  said  that  the  universe  first 
existed  only  in  darkness  as  if  immersed  in  sleep.  Then  the 
Self-existent  (Svayam-bhu)  still  undeveloped  (A-vyakta), 
having  willed  to  produce  various  beings  from  his  own  sub- 
stance, first  with  a  mere  thought  created  the  waters,  and 
placed  on  them  a  productive  seed  or  o.^^  (bija).  Then  he 
himself  was  born  in  that  &g%  in  the  form  of  Brahma.  Next 
he  caused  the  q.^%  to  divide  itself,  and  out  of  its  two  divisions 
framed  the  heaven  above  and  the  earth  beneath.  Afterwards, 
having  divided  his  own  substance,  he  became  half  male,  half 
female  (I.  32),  and  from  that  female  produced  Viraj,  from 
whom  was  created  Manu,  the  secondary  progenitor  of  all 
beings.  The  order  of  the  creation  of  the  five  elements  is 
I.  Ether  (Akasa) ;  3.  Air  (Vayu) ;  3.  Fire  (Tejas  or  Jyotis); 
4.  Water  (Apah,  pi.) ;  5.  Earth  (Prithivi  or  Bhumi) ;  but  these 
resulted  from  a  previous  creation  of  five  subtle  elements 
(tanmatra).     The  Nyaya-sutra  reverses  the  order. 

So  again  in  the  Sahkhya  philosophy,  there  are  two  eternal 
principles — the  Producer  and  the  Spirit.  The  former  is  an 
eternal  productive  germ  or  Creative  Force  which  is  called 
Prakriti  (feminine),  because  it  produces  (prakaroti)  twenty-four 
products.  It  is  also  called  Pradhana,  because  it  is  the  fixed 
material  cause  of  everything  except  the  Spirit — which  is 
twenty-fifth  in  the  series.  This  infinitely  subtle  elementary 
productive  germ,  though  one,  is  supposed  to  be  made  up  of  a 
trinity  of  co-eternal  primordial  qualities  in  perfect  equipoise 
(samya).  These  are  called  Gunas,  not  because  they  are 
simply  qualities,  but  because  they  act  like  'cords'  to  bind 


rhilosophical  Bi  ahnianis))!.  31 

the  spirit  with  triple  bonds.  They  are,  1.  Sattva,  'purity' 
or  'goodness;'  2.  Rajas,  'passion'  or  'activity;'  and  3. 
Tamas,  '  darkness  '  or  '  indifference  ; '  sometimes  regarded  as 
equivalent  to  pleasure,  pain,  and  indolence  respectively. 

The  Spirit  or  second  eternal  principle  called  Purusha 
(the  I\Iale  or  Self)  is  not,  like  Prakriti,  one ;  nor  does  it 
l)roduce  anything.  It  is  multitudinous.  Spirits  are  innume- 
rable, each  separate  Spirit  being  co-eternal  with  Prakriti;  but 
doing  nothing  and  creating  nothing.  When  human  beings  or 
any  other  beings  are  created,  the  creation  is  always  effected 
through  evolution  out  of  Prakriti,  which  is  nevertheless  a 
merely  blind  and  dark  force  ;  no  creation  at  all  being  apparent 
imless  this  force  brings  itself  into  union  with  some  one  eter- 
nally existing  separate  spirit.  Prakriti,  in  short,  unites  itself 
with  the  Spirit  or  Self  and  binds  it  with  the  triple  bond  of 
the  three  above-named  Gunas^  in  order  that  this  Spirit  may 
reflect  or  illumine  the  evolved  world  as  a  clear  river  reflects 
dark  trees,  or  as  a  bright  crystal  vase  illumines  a  flower, 
while  the  flower  itself  colours  the  crystal. 

The  first  step  in  the  evolution  out  of  Prakriti  is  the  pro- 
duction of  Intellect  or  intelligent  perception  (Buddhi).  Next 
comes  the  faculty  of  Self-consciousness  or  personality,  called 
the  I-maker  (Aham-kara),  and  then  the  five  subtle  and  five 
gross  elements,  the  latter  being  the  product  of  the  former. 
Last  in  the  series  come  the  five  organs  of  perception,  the  five 
organs  of  action  and  the  internal  organ,  mind  (Manas),  which 
holds  a  position  between  the  ten  other  organs,  mediating 
between  them  as  the  instrument  of  both  perception  and 
volition'-.  These  constitute  the  twenty-five  principles  of  the 
Sahkhya  system. 

^  The  Spirit  before  its  association  with  these  Gunas  is  called  Nirguna  ; 
and  when  bound  by  them,  Saguna. 

^  In  this  and  in  the  Nyiiya  system  Buddhi,  '  intellect,'  is  anterior  and 
superior  to  Manas,  'mind,'  which  is  merely  the  instrument  of  thought. 
It  governs  the  mind,  and  causes  it  to  decide.  Manu's  theory  is  a 
combination  of  Sai'ikhya  and  Vedanta.     In  Book  I.  14,  etc.  it  is  said  that 


2  Philosophical  Drahinanism. 


The  noteworthy  point  is  that  consciousness,  cognition,  will, 
and  thought  do  not  belong  to  the  creative  force  Prakrit! 
and  its  creations.  Intellect;  the  I-maker,  and  Mind  (Buddhi, 
Aham-kara,  Manas)  when  existing  separately,  nor  to  the 
spirit  (Purusha)  when  existing  separately,  but  only  to  the  two 
when  united.  In  short,  two  factors — the  active,  creative  but 
blind  force,  and  the  inactive,  passive  but  illuminating  spirit — 
must  come  together  before  there  can  be  even  any  conscious- 
ness or  sense  of  personality.  And  yet  the  creation  is  not 
supposed  to  take  place  for  the  sake  of  the  two  together, 
but  only  that  it  may  be  illuminated  and  observed  by  each 
separate  individual  spirit  or  soul,  which  nevertheless  is  a 
wholly  apathetic,  isolated,  and  indifferent  spectator  of  the  act. 
It  is  clear  from  this  how  easy  it  became  to  confuse  Purusha 
wnth  Prakriti  and  to  regard  either  the  one  or  the  other  or  the 
union  of  both  as  the  source  of  the  external  world ^. 

Of  course  when  any  being  is  created  the  three  primordial 
qualities,  Purity,  Passion,  and  Darkness,  are  no  longer  equally 
balanced  as  they  are  in  the  creative  germ,  Prakriti.  Creation 
is  a  result  of  the  disturbance  of  this  equilibrium.  One  or 
other  quality  is  then  in  excess,  making  a  being  unselfish  and 
good,  selfish  and  energetic,  bestial  and  ignorant,  according  as 
either  purity,  passion,  or  darkness  may  happen  to  prepon- 
derate. 

I  need  not  point  out  that  this  remarkable  theory  of  innu- 

Brahma,  when  born  from  the  egg  deposited  by  the  Self-existent,  drew 
out  the  external  world  from  pure  spirit  (Atman).  The  first  product  was 
the  principle  of  thought  (Manas  =  Buddhi  or  Mahat).  Next  came 
Personality  (Aham-kara),  and  then  the  seven  subtle  elements  (Tan- 
matras).  From  these  seven  active  principles  (called  'the  seven  Puru- 
shas,'  I.  19) — viz.  Mahat  or  Buddhi  (called  Manas  in  I.  14,  74,  75), 
Aham-kara,  and  the  five  subtle  elements — were  evolved  the  five  gross 
or  material  elements  {jiiahd-blifUa),  the  organs  of  sense,  and  the  whol^ 
world  of  sense. 

^  Professor  A.  E.  Gough  in  the  '  Calcutta  Review'  has  thrown  great 
light  on  the  Saiikhya  and  Vedanta  systems  and  their  close  connexion 
with  each  other. 


Philosophical  Brahmanism.  33 

mcrable  personal  creations  by  individual  souls  is  not  without 
its  counterpart  in  European  systems^.  In  India  the  idea  of  a 
separate  spiritual  Self  combining  with  a  primordial  force  for 
the  creation  of  all  things  was,  as  we  have  seen,  of  great 
antiquity.  And  notwithstanding  the  physical  and  metaphysical 
subtleties  with  which  it  was  connected,  the  notion  of  the 
universe  proceeding  from  a  male  principle  regarded  as  a 
generator,  and  a  female  principle  regarded  as  an  eternal 
energy  or  capacity  [sakti),  commended  itself  to  the  popular 
mind  as  harmonizing  with  the  operations  and  phenomena 
everywhere  apparent  in  nature.  To  this  day  it  is  symbolized 
all  over  India  by  temples  dedicated  to  the  male  and  female 
organ  (called  Linga  and  Yoni).  It  is  clear  that  in  such  a 
system  there  can  be  no  need  for  the  existence  of  a  supreme 
eternal  Spirit  as  distinct  from  the  personal  spirit,  even  though 
such  a  supreme  Being  be  theoretically  admitted  (as  in  the 
Yoga  branch  of  the  Sahkhya). 

The  so-called  pantheistic  theory  of  the  Vedanta  philosophy 
is  even  more  attractive  to  the  majority  of  Hindu  thinkers.  It 
is  true  that  the  Sahkhya  and  Vedanta  together  underlie 
Brahmanism ;  but  the  Vedanta  is  the  more  orthodox.  It  is 
a  belief  in  the  non-duality  and  non-plurality  of  Spirit — that 
is  to  say,  in  one  eternal  Spirit  called  Atman-  (nom.  Atma)  or 
Brahman  (nom.  Brahma,  see  p.  43)  instead  of  in  many, — a  belief 
in  the  identification  of  the  human  spirit  and  of  all  the  pheno- 
mena of  nature  with  that  one  Spirit,  when  enveloped  in 
illusion.  In  other  words,  the  separate  existence  of  man's  soul 
and  of  all  natural  phenomena  is  only  illusory. 

This  doctrine  is  said  to  rest  on  another  well-known  hymn 
of  the  Veda  (X.  90)  called  the  Purusha-sukta.  There  the 
one  embodied  Spirit  is  called  Purusha  (see  p.  17),  and  is 
said  to  be  '  everything,  whatever  is,  has  been,  and  shall 
be.'      The   same    doctrine    is    briefly    formulated    in    three 

^  The  Saiikhya  has  much  in  common  with  the  Idealism  of  Berkeley. 
'  One  etymology  given  for  Atman  is  an,  to  breathe.     Compare  p.  20. 

D 


•^ 


4  PJiilosophical  B7'ahnian{sm. 


words  (from  the  Chandogya  Upanishad)  used  as  a  creed  in 
the  present  day  by  Indian  Theistic  as  well  as  Pantheistic 
sects — Ekani  cva  advitlymn,  '  there  is  but  one  Being,  no 
second.'  Nothing  really  exists  but  the  one  impersonal  Spirit, 
called  Atma  or  Brahma  (  =  Purusha).  From  him  is  everything 
born ;  in  him  it  breathes ;  in  him  it  is  dissolved  (tajjalan). 
He,  in  the  illusion  thai  ovcrspi'eads  him,  is  to  the  external 
world  what  yarn  is  to  cloth,  what  milk  to  curds,  what  clay  to 
a  jar ;  but  only  in  that  illusion  ^.  As  ether  contained  in 
various  vessels  and  as  the  sun  reflected  on  various  mirrors  is 
one  but  apparently  many,  so  is  the  spirit  one  and  many.  As 
the  potter  by  the  help  of  clay  makes  a  pot,  so  the  Spirit  itself 
causes  its  various  births.  As  an  actor  paints  his  body  with 
colours  and  assumes  various  forms,  so  the  Spirit  assumes  the 
bodies  caused  by  its  deeds.  This  eternal  impersonal  Atma 
or  Brahma  is  absolutely  One  (unlike  the  Sankhyan  Spirit  or 
Purusha,  which  is  multitudinous) ;  yet  it  is  made  up  of  a 
trinity  of  co-eternal  essences — to  wit,  pure  unconscious  Ex- 
istence (Sat),  pure  Thought  (Cit)^,  and  pure  Bliss  (Ananda). 

And  here  let  me  observe  that  more  than  one  Christian 
writer  has  pointed  out  how  remarkably  this  tri-unity  of 
Entities  corresponds  with  the  Trinitarian  doctrine  of  God 
the  Father^  who  is  the  Author  of  all  Existence ;  God  the  Son, 
who  is  the  Source  of  all  Wisdom  and  Knowledge ;  and  God 
the  Holy  Spirit,  who  is  the  Source  of  all  Joy.  But  we  must 
bear  in  mind  that,  with  the  Vedantist,  Brahma  is  only  Exist- 
ence in  the  negation  of  non-existence,  only  Thought  in  the 
negation  of  non-thought,'  only  Bliss  in  the  negation  of  non- 
bliss  and  of  all  the  miseries  of  transmigration. 

When   this   impersonal   unconscious   Spirit    assumes    con- 


^  He  is  not  the  actual  material  cause  of  the  world  as  clay  of  ajar,  but 
the  illusory  material  cause  as  a  rope  might  be  of  a  snake  ;  see  p.  37,  1.  7. 

'^  Cm.,  'pure  unconscious  thought'  alone,  or  its  equivalent  Caitanya,  is 
often  used  for  Brahma.  Brahma  is  also  described  in  the  Upanishads  as 
Truth,  Knowledge,  Infinity. 


Philosophical  Drahniaiiisni.  35 

sciousness  and  personality — that  is,  when  it  begins  to  exist 
in  any  object,  to  think  about  anything  or  be  joyful  about  any- 
thing—it does  so  by  associating  itself  with  the  power  of  Illusion 
(Maya)  and  investing  itself  with  three  corporeal  envelopes. 

First,  the  causal  body  (karana-sarira)  identified  with  Ajnana 
or  Ignorance';  secondly,  the  subtle  body  (lihga-sarira) ;  and 
thirdly,  the  gross  material  body  (sthCda-sarlra).  In  this  way  the 
impersonal  Spirit  is  converted  into  a  personal  God  who  can 
be  worshipped,  and  so  becomes  the  Supreme  Lord  (Isvara, 
Taramesvara)  and  Ruler  of  the  world.  To  be  strictly  accurate, 
however,  it  should  be  stated  that  the  Vedanta  theory  makes 
the  assumption  of  these  three  bodies  involve  the  assumption  of 
three  distinct  divine  personalities,  each  of  which  is  supposed 
to  invest  a  particular  condition  of  spirit.  Thus,  with  the  first 
or  causal  body,  the  impersonal  Spirit  becomes  the  Supreme 
Lord,  Paramesvara,  supposed  to  represent  and  embody  the 
mystical  totality  of  dreamless  spirits ;  with  the  second  or 
subtle  body  the  impersonal  Spirit  becomes  Hiranya-garbha 
(or  Sutratman,  or  Prana),  supposed  to  represent  the  aggregate 
of  dreaming  spirits,  connecting  them  like  the  Sutra  or  thread 
of  a  necklace ;  with  the  third  or  gross  body  it  becomes  Viraj 
(or  Vaisvanara,  Prajapati,  Purusha),  supposed  to  represent 
and  embody  the  aggregate  of  waking  spirits  (compare  p.  28). 

This  third  condition  of  spirit  or  that  of  being  wide  awake, 
though  with  us  considered  to  be  the  highest  state,  is  by  Hindu 
philosophers  held  to  be  the  lowest,  because  farthest  removed 
from  unconscious  spirit.  In  fact,  beyond  and  underlying  all 
three  conditions  of  spirit  is  the  fourth  (turiya)  or  pure  abstract 
impersonal  Spirit  (Brahma)  itself. 

Of  course  these  hyper-subtlcties  are  beyond  the  scope  of 


^  The  Karana-«arTra  is  not  only  identified  with  Ignorance  (Ajnana  or 
Avidya),  but  also  with  Illusion  (Maya).  It  is,  therefore,  no  real  body. 
Both  Ignorance  and  Illusion  are  the  sole  cause  of  the  separation  of  the 
personal  God  and  the  personal  human  soul  from  the  universal  Soul.  In 
the  same  way  they  are  the  cause  of  every  existing  thing. 

D  2 


2,6  PJiilosophical  Brahmanism. 

ordinary  philosophic  thought ;  but  they  show  how  great  is 
the  difference  between  the  Pantheism  of  India  and  that  of 
Europe.  A  Vedantist  beHeves  in  one  impersonal  Spirit,  who, 
by  association  with  Illusion,  becomes  one  Supreme  personal 
God  (Paramesvara).  And  it  is  this  personal  God  who,  when 
he  engages  in  the  creation,  preservation,  and  dissolution  of  the 
Universe,  is  held  to  be  dominated  by  one  or  other  of  the  three 
Qualities  (Gunas)  which  are  the  supposed  constituents  of  his 
causal  body,  identified,  as  it  is,  with  Ignorance^.  These  three 
Qualities  or  conditions  are  the  same  as  those  which  in  the  Saii- 
khyan  system  are  the  constituents  of  Prakrit!  —  namely. 
Activity,  Goodness,  and  Indifference  (Rajas,  Sattva,  Tamas)^. 
They  are  those  which  in  the  later  doctrine  of  the  Puranas  are 
held  to  separate  the  one  Supreme  personal  God  into  the 
three  divine  personalities  of  Brahma  (nom.  case),  Vishnu,  and 
Rudra-Siva,  each  accompanied  by  his  own  consort^. 

Dominated  by  Activity  (Rajas),  the  Supreme  Being  is 
Brahma,  the  Creator ;  by  Goodness  (Sattva),  he  is  Vishnu, 
the  Preserver ;  by  Indifference  (Tamas),  he  is  Rudra,  the 
Dissolver. 

Pure  Vedantism,  then,  is  not  only  a  belief  in  one  un- 
conscious, impersonal  Spirit  made  up  of  three  essences.  It 
is  a  belief  that  a  kind  of  threefold  trinity— to  wit,  three 
spiritual  essences,  three  corporeal  envelopes,  and  three  do- 
minating qualities — together  constitute  one  personal  God,  as 
well  as  every  human  personality. 


'  In  other  words,  the  Karana-sarlra — consisting  of  Ignorance,  and 
therefore  made  up  of  the  three  Gunas — is  the  illusory  corporeal  disguise 
(upadhi)  or  investing  envelope  or  triple  bond  of  the  impersonal  Spirit 
Brahma,  by  which  it  becomes  the  personal  God  Paramesvara,  who  is 
thence  called  Saguna  (associated  with  the  Gunas).  In  its  impersonal 
state  the  Spirit  is  Nirguna. 

-'  Sometimes  regarded  as  equivalent  to  Passion  or  Pain,  Purity  or 
Happiness,  and  Apathy  or  Ignorance. 

^  In  the  later  mythology  the  expression  Sakti  is  substituted  for  Maya, 
Prakriti,  and  Ajnana,  as  representing  the  wife  of  the  personal  God. 


PhilosopJiiial  Bra/imanisrn.  37 

It  is  by  reason,  then,  of  association  with  Illusion  or  Ignor- 
ance (made  up  of  the  three  Qualities),  that  the  Supreme  Spirit 
(Paramatman)  enshrined  in  the  personal  God,  and  the  livinij 
spirit  (jivatman)  enshrined  in  the  heart  of  man,  believe  in 
their  own  individuality,  mistaking  it  and  the  surrounding 
world  for  realities,  just  as  a  rope  in  a  dark  night  might  be 
mistaken  for  a  snake.  The  moment  that  the  personalized 
spirit  sets  itself  free  from  the  power  of  Illusion  or  Ignorance, 
its  identity  and  that  of  the  whole  phenomenal  universe  with 
the  one  impersonal  Spirit,  Atman  (  =  Paramatman,  Brahma), 
is  re-established.  Strange  to  say,  this  Illusion  or  Ignorance  is 
held  to  have  an  eternal  existence  equally  with  the  one  eternal 
Brahma  ^  though,  owing  to  the  fact  that  such  existence  is 
unreal,  and  the  whole  evolved  world  unreal  too,  it  follows 
that  nothing  really  existent  is  left  but  Brahma.  In  other 
words,  all  that  really  exists  is  identical  with  Brahma. 

In  fact,  the  more  evidently  physical  and  metaphysical 
speculations  are  opposed  to  common  sense,  the  more  favour 
do  they  find  with  some  Hindu  thinkers.  Common  sense 
tells  an  Englishman  that  he  really  exists  himself,  and  that 
everything  he  sees  around  him  really  exists  also.  He  cannot 
abandon  these  two  primary  convictions.  Not  so  the  Hindii 
Vedantist.  Dualism  is  his  bugbear,  and  common  sense, 
when  it  maintains  any  kind  of  real  duality,  either  the  separate 
independent  existence  of  a  man's  own  Spirit  and  of  God's 
Spirit  or  of  spirit  and  matter,  is  guilty  of  gross  deception. 

And  yet,  after  all,  when  the  Vedantist  theory,  as  held  at 
present,  is  closely  examined,  it  turns  out  to  be  virtually  as 
dualistic,  in  regard  to  spirit  and  matter,  as  the  Saiikhya  ; 
the  only  difference  being  that  the  source  of  the  material 
world  (Prakriti  or  Maya)  in  the  Saiikhya  is  held  to  have 
a  real  eternal  existence  instead  of  a  merely  illusory  eternal 

^  Maya-cid-yogo  'nadil.i,  'the  union  of  C\d  and  Maya  is  from  all 
eternity.'  See  Professor  Cough's  articles  on  the  Philosophy  of  the 
Upanishads. 


38  Philosophical  Brahmanism. 

existence ^  Brahma  and  Maya  'Illusion'  in  the  Vedanta 
system  must  be  united  in  the  act  of  creation.  The  external 
world  is  the  product  of  two  eternal  principles  (virtually 
comparable  to  Light  and  Darkness  in  the  Saiikhya,  and  to 
Knowledge  and  Ignorance  in  the  Vedanta).  The  chief  differ- 
ence between  the  two  systems  lies  in  the  plurality  of  Spirits 
as  distinguished  from  the  unity  of  Spirit.  Yet  the  Vedantist, 
while  asserting  the  latter,  virtually  believes  in  three  conditions 
of  being,  real,  practical,  and  illusory.  He  affirms  that  the  one 
Spirit  Brahma  alone  has  a  real  (paramarthika)  existence  ;  yet 
he  allows  a  practical  (vyavaharika)  separate  existence  to 
human  spirits,  to  the  world,  and  to  the  personal  God  or  gods, 
as  well  as  an  illusory  (pratibhasika)  existence. 

Hence  every  object  is  to  be  dealt  with  practically  as  if 
it  were  really  what  it  appears  to  be.  A  god  is  practically  a 
god  ;  a  man,  a  man ;  a  beast,  a  beast ;  so  that  when  a  man 
feeds  a  horse  he  does  not  feed  him  as  a  portion  of  God^  but 
as  an  animal  kept  for  riding.  The  Vedanta  theory,  like  the 
Saiikhya,  has  taken  deep  root  in  the  Indian  mind.  Both  are 
the  real  source  of  the  popular  religion  and  mythology  of 
the  Hindus.  Both  permeate  their  literature  and  give  a  colour 
to  every  thought  and  feeling  of  their  daily  lives.  And  hence 
it  is  not  difficult  to  understand  how  a  people  imbued  with  the 
idea  that  the  world  is  an  illusion  should  be  destitute  of  any 
taste  for  historical  investigations.  No  such  thing  as  a  genuine 
history  or  biography  exists  in  the  whole  of  Sanskrit  literature. 
Historical  researches  are  to  a  Hindu  simple  foolishness. 

The  third  philosophical  system,  called  Nyaya — or  the  act 
of  going  into  any  subject  analytically  (opposed  to  Saiikhya 


^  Perhaps  the  only  true  monistic  theory  is  that  of  the  Buddhist,  who 
afifirms  that  nothing  exists  but  the  self-creative  Universe,  which,  however, 
he  also  calls  Maya,  '  Illusion.'  A  Vedantist  is  Brahma-vadl,  'one  who 
affirms  that  Brahma  is  the  only  reality;'  a  Buddhist  is  Sunya-vadl,  'one 
who  affirms  a  blank  for  God  ;'  and  a  Saiikhya  is  Pradhana-vadI,  one  who 
affirms  that  all  things  proceed  from  Pradhana  (Prakriti). 


PhilosopJiical  BraJinminsm.  39 

or  synthetic  enumeration) — is  not  so  closely  connected  with 
religion  and  religious  speculation  as  the  Saiikhya  and  Ve- 
danta.  Yet  it  offers  more  interesting  parallels  to  European 
philosophical  and  scientific  ideas.  It  is  much  studied  in 
modern  Sanskrit  schools  of  learning,  as  an  analytical  inquiry 
into  all  the  objects  and  subjects  of  human  knowledge,  in- 
cluding, among  others,  the  process  of  reasoning  and  logic. 

In  regard  to  the  subject  of  reasoning,  the  Nyaya  proper,  as 
I  have  shown  in  '  Indian  Wisdom  '  (p.  72),  propounds  in  its 
first  Sutra  sixteen  topics,  the  first  of  which  is  Praindna,  that 
is,  the  means  or  instrument  by  which  knowledge  or  the  right 
measure  (prama  or  pramiti)  of  a  subject  is  to  be  obtained. 
These  means  are  four — perception  by  the  senses  (pratyaksha); 
inference  (anumana) ;  comparison  (upamana) ;  verbal  or  trust- 
worthy authority  (sabda  or  aptopadesa),  including  revelation  \ 

Of  these  four  processes,  '  inference '  is  divided  into  five 
members  (avayava).  i.  The  pratijnd,  or  proposition  (stated 
hypothetically).  2.  The  /ictn,  or  reason.  3.  The  7idd- 
Jiarana,  or  example  (  =  major  premiss).  4.  The  iipanaya,  or 
application  of  the  reason  (  =  minor  premiss).  5.  The  niga- 
Diaiia,  or  conclusion,  i.  e.  the  proposition  restated  as  proved. 
Thus:  I.  The  hill  is  fiery;  2.  for  it  smokes ; '3.  whatever 
smokes  is  fiery,  as  a  kitchen-hearth ;  4.  this  hill  smokes ; 
5.  therefore  this  hill  is  fiery. 

Here  we  have  a  clumsy  combination  of  enthymeme  and 
syllogism,  which  must  be  regarded  not  as  a  syllogism,  but  as 
a  full  rhetorical  statement  of  an  argument. 

The  most  noticeable  peculiarity  in  the  Indian  method, 
stamping  it  as  an  original  analysis  of  the  laws  of  thought, 
is  the  employment  of  the  terms  'invariable  concomitance 
or  pervasion '  {vydpti),  '  invariable   pervader '  {lydpaka),  and 


'  The  Saiikhya  rejects  the  third  of  the  four  Pramanas,  and  the  Vedanta 
adds  two  others  to  the  four,  viz.  negative  proof  (an-upalabdhi,  abhava) 
and  inference  from  circumstances  (arthapatti). 


40  Philosophical  BraJimanism. 

'invariably  pervaded'  {I'julpya).  Fire  is  the  pervader,  smoke 
the  pervaded.  The  argument  is  thus  stated  :  *  The  mountain 
has  invariably  fire-pervaded  smoke  ;  therefore  it  has  fire.' 

The  Nyaya,  like  the  Sahkh}'a,  believes  the  individual  souls 
of  men  {jJvatman)  to  be  eternal,  manifold,  eternally  separate 
from  each  other,  and  distinct  from  the  body,  senses,  and 
mind,  infinite,  ubiquitous,  and  diffused  everyivJiere  throiigJiont 
space,  so  that  a  man's  soul  is  as  much  in  England  as  in 
Calcutta,  though  it  can  only  apprehend,  and  feel,  and  act, 
where  the  body  happens  to  be. 

Its  idea  of  the  mind  [niaiias),  which  it  calls  an  internal 
instrument  or  organ,  is  that  it  is  like  the  spirit  or  soul,  an 
eternal  substance  {dravya).  Instead,  however,  of  being  dif- 
fused everywhere  like  spirit,  it  is  atomic,  like  earth,  water,  fire, 
and  air,  and  can  only  admit  one  perception  or  volition  at  a  J 
time.  ■ 

In  its  cosmogony  the  Nyaya  is  dualistic  in  assuming  the 
existence  of  eternal  atoms,  side  by  side  with  eternal  souls. 
Atoms  are  not  like  Prakrit!  one,  but  innumerable. 

We  know  that  the  true  Sankhya  (as  distinct  from  the 
Yoga)  recognized  no  Supreme  Spirit,  and  it  is  probable  that 
the  true  Nyaya  was  in  this  respect  like  the  Sankhya.  In  any 
case  neither  of  these  systems  admits  the  absolute  unity  of  one  j 
omnipresent  all-pervading  Spirit.  If  they  acknowledge  a 
Supreme  presiding  Spirit  at  all,  it  can  only  be  as  forming 
one  of  innumerable  other  spirits — though  superior  to  them — 
and  as  co-eternal  and  (in  the  case  of  the  Nyaya)  as  co- 
omnipresent  with  them. 

The  foregoing  three  systems,  with  their  three  sub-systems, 
together  constitute  the  philosophical  phase  of  Brahmanism. 
Clearly  the  one  great  aim  of  this  branch  of  Indian  religious 
thought  is  to  teach  men  to  abstain  from  action  of  every  kind, 
good  or  bad — as  much  from  liking  as  from  disliking,  as  much 
from  loving  as  from  hating,  as  much  from  earnest  as  from 
listless  effort. 


]\TythoIogical  Brd/nuatiism.  41 

The  whole  external  world  is  an  illusion.  Actions  and 
feelings  of  all  kinds  are  a  grand  mistake.  They  are  the 
fetters  of  the  soul  which  bind  it  as  with  bonds  of  iron  to 
a  continual  succession  of  bodies. 

Transmigration  or  Metempsychosis  is  the  great  bugbear — 
the  terrible  nightmare  and  daymare  of  Indian  philosophers 
and  metaphysicians.  All  their  efforts  are  directed  to  the 
getting  rid  of  this  oppressive  scare.  'As  the  embodied  soul,' 
says  the  Bhagavad-gltfi,  'moves  swiftly  on  through  boyhood, 
youth,  and  age,  so  will  it  pass  through  other  forms  hereafter.' 

The  question  is  not,  What  is  truth  ?  The  one  engrossing 
problem  is.  How  is  a  man  to  break  this  iron  chain  of  repeated 
existences?  How  is  he  to  shake  off  all  personality  ?  Howls 
he  to  return  to  complete  absorption  (sayujya)  into  pure  un- 
conscious Spirit?  Or,  if  this  highest  object  of  ambition  is 
beyond  his  reach,  how  is  he  to  work  his  way  through  8,400,000 
successive  births  to  any  of  the  three  inferior  conditions  of 
bliss — I.  living  in  the  same  sphere  with  the  personal  God 
(salokya) ;  2.  close  proximity  to  that  God  (samTpya) ;  3. 
assimilation  to  the  likeness  of  that  God  (sarupya)? 

MytJiological  BraJunanism. 

The  Mythological  phase  of  Brahmanism  has  for  its  bible  the 
two  great  legendary  heroic  poems  (Itihasa)  called  Maha-bharata 
and  Ramayana.  Its  development  was  probably  synchronous 
with  that  of  Buddhism. 

Buddhism,  like  philosophical  Brahmanism,  was  a  disbelief 
in  the  efficacy  of  ritual,  and,  like  it,  taught  the  uselessness 
of  sacrificial  ceremonies  and  even  of  austerities  for  the  attain- 
ment of  true  knowledge.  It  taught  that  knowledge  was  only 
to  be  obtained  through  self-suppression.  It  substituted  a  blank 
for  God  ;  it  denied  the  existence  of  soul  or  spirit,  whether  per- 
sonal or  supreme,  and  of  everything  but  body,  mind,  and 
sensations, — of  everything  but  earth,,  heavens,  and  hells,  which, 


42  Mythological  BraJmianism. 

according  to  the  Buddha,  arc  always,  through  the  force  of 
works,  tending  to  disintegration  and  re-integration  in  perpetual 
cycles.  But  while  it  repudiated  priestcraft  and  sacrificing 
priests,  it  supplied  the  people  with  an  object  of  venera- 
tion in  its  own  founder  Gautama— afterwards  styled  'the 
Enlightened '  (Buddha).  Its  success  was  in  a  great  measure 
due  to  the  reverence  the  Buddha  inspired  by  his  own  personal 
character.  He  was  the  ideal  man — the  perfection  of  hu- 
manity. He  practised  faithfully  what  he  preached  effectively. 
Adherents  gathered  in  crowds  around  his  person,  and  Gautama 
himself  became  the  real  god  of  his  own  popular  faith. 
Everywhere  throughout  India  thousands  were  drawn  towards 
his  teaching.  His  doctrines  of  universal  charity,  liberty, 
equality,  and  fraternity  were  irresistibly  attractive.  The 
only  hope  of  arresting  the  progress  of  the  Buddhistic  move- 
ment lay  in  inventing  human  gods  and  a  system  of  mytho- 
logy equally  attractive,  equally  suited  to  the  needs  and 
capacities  of  the  mass  of  the  people. 

In  all  probability  the  Brahmans  commenced  popularizing 
their  pantheistic  doctrines  about  the  time  of  the  rise  of 
Buddhism  in  the  fifth  century  B.  C.  The  Buddha  died,  and, 
according  to  his  own  teaching,  became  personally  annihilated, 
but  the  remains  of  his  body  were  enshrined  as  relics  in 
various  parts  of  India,  and  his  memory  was  worshipped 
almost  as  earnestly  as  his  person  had  been  revered.  The 
Brahmans  saw  this.  They  knew  that  the  religious  cravings 
of  the  mass  of  the  Hindu  people  could  not  long  be  satisfied 
either  with  propitiation  of  the  elements  or  with  their  own 
cold  philosophy,  or  with  homage  paid  to  a  being  held,  like 
Buddha,  to  be  nowhere  existent.  They  therefore  addressed 
themselves  to  the  task  of  supplying  the  people  with  personal 
and  human  gods  out  of  their  own  heroic  poems,  the  Rama- 
yana  and  Maha-bharata.  They  proceeded  to  Brahmanize 
the  popular  songs  of  a  people  who,  when  they  first  spread 
themselves  over  India,  were  warriors  not  priests.     The  prin- 


Mythological  Brahmanism.  43 

cipal  heroes,  whose  achievements  were  the  subject  of  epic 
song  and  recitation,  underwent  a  process  of  deification.  The 
great  warrior  dynasties  were  made  to  trace  back  their  origin, 
through  Brfdimanical  sages,  to  the  sun-god  and  the  moon- 
o-od.  Myths  and  legends  confirmatory  of  the  divine  origin 
of  every  great  hero  were  invented  and  foisted  into  the  body 
of  the  poems.  In  this  manner  a  kind  of  anthropomorphic 
mythology,  well  adapted  to  the  popular  mind,  was  devised. 
Nor  was  any  amount  of  polytheism,  anthropomorphism,  poly- 
demonism,  and  even  fetishism  incompatible  with  their  own 
pantheistic  doctrines.  The  Brfdimans  in  their  popular  teach- 
ing were  simply  carrying  out  their  own  doctrine  of  evolution. 
The  only  problem  they  had  to  solve  was :  how  could  any 
theory  of  evolution  be  made  to  comprehend  existing  super- 
stitions and  be  best  applied  to  the  development  of  a  popular 
mythology  ? 

Nothing,  then,  was  easier  for  them  than  to  maintain  that 
the  one  sole,  self-existing  Supreme  Self,  the  only  real  exist- 
ing Essence,  exercises  itself,  as  if  sportively  (lilaya),  in  infinite 
expansion,  in  infinite  manifestations  of  itself,  in  infinite  crea- 
tion, dissolution,  and  re-creation,  through  infinite  varieties 
and  diversities  of  operation.  The  very  name  'Brahma'  (de- 
rived from  the  root  brih,  'to  increase'),  given  to  this  one 
eternal  Essence,  was  expressive  of  this  growth,  this  expansive 
power,  this  universal  development  and  diffusion. 

Hence  all  visible  forms  on  earth,  said  the  Brahmans,  are 
emanations  from  the  one  eternal  Entity,  like  drops  from  an 
ocean,  like  sparks  from  fire.  Stones,  mountains,  rivers,  plants, 
trees,  and  animals— all  these  are  traceable  upwards  as  pro- 
gressive steps  in  the  ipfinite  evolution  of  his  being.  The 
highest  earthly  emanation  is  man,  and  the  emanation  of 
men  is  in  classes  and  also  traceable  upwards  according  to 
a  graduated  scale,  the  highest  class  being  that  of  the 
Brahmans. 

Fitly,  too,  are  the  highest  human  manifestations  of  the 


44  Mythological  BraJunanism. 

eternal  Brahma  called  Brahmans :  for  they  are  the  appointed 
mediators  between  earth  and  God.  None  of  these  emana- 
tions can  alter  their  condition  in  each  separate  state.  Ac- 
cording to  their  acts,  they  sink  into  lower  or  rise  into 
higher  grades  of  being  on  the  dissolution  of  each  bodily 
frame. 

Then  be  it  observed  that  a  series  of  higher  forms  of  exist- 
ence above  the  earth,  such  as  demigods,  supernatural  beings, 
inferior  gods,  superior  gods,  is  traceable  upwards  from  man 
to  the  primeval  male  god  Brahma — the  first  personal  product 
of  the  purely  spiritual  Brahma  when  overspread  by  Maya  or 
illusory  creative  force — this  male  god  Brahma  standing  at  the 
head  of  creation  as  the  first  evolution  and  hence  the  apparent 
Evolver  of  all  the  inferior  forms.  To  draw  any  line  of  i 
separation  between  stocks,  stones,  plants,  animals,  men, 
demigods,  and  gods  is,  according  to  the  theory  of  Brahmanism, 
impossible.  They  are  all  liable  to  run  into  each  other  ^, 
and  the  number  of  gods  alone  amounts  to  330  millions. 

But  the  act  of  creation  necessarily  involves  the  two  other 
acts  of  preservation  and  dissolution.  Hence  the  god  Brahma 
is  associated  with  two  other  personal  deities,  Vishnu,  the 
Preserver,  and  Rudra-Siva,  the  Dissolver  and  Reproducer. 
These  three  gods,  concerned  in  the  threefold  operation  of 
integration,  maintenance,  and  disintegration  of  being  {srishti- 
stJiiti-layd),  are  typified  by  the  three  letters  composing  the 
mystic  and  profoundly  significant  syllable  Om  (AUM), — 
three  letters  originally  typical  of  the  earlier  Vcdic  trinity, 
and,  in  the  mysticism  of  the  Upanishads,  of  three  personaliza- 
tions of  the  Universal  Spirit  (Paramesvara,  Hiranya-garbha, 
and  Viraj  -).  Like  the  earlier  Vedic  gods,  the  three  later 
deities  were  not  only  personifications  of  the  three  forces  of 

'  The  whole  series  of  evolutions  is  sometimes  spoken  of  as  Brahmadi- 
stamba-paryantam,  extending  from  Brahma  to  a  stump  (or  tuft  of  grass). 

"^  See  p.  35,  and  see  Mandukya  Upanishad,  which  makes  the  whole 
monosyllable  Om  stand  for  the  impersonal  Brahma. 


Mythological  Brahmanism.  45 

integration,  disintegration,  and  reintegration,  but  also  of  three 
principal  objects  in  nature,  Earth,  Water  or  Sun,  and  Fire  ; 
or  of  the  three  worlds.  Earth,  Air,  and  Sky;  or  of  the  three 
forms  of  matter,  Solid,  Liquid,  and  Gaseous  ^  They  consti- 
tute the  well-known  Tri-inurti,  or  triad  of  forms  which 
characterizes  mythological  Brfdimanism,  and  their  bodies, 
like  those  of  human  beings,  are  composed  of  gross  material 
particles  though  of  a  divine  and  ethereal  character  (see  p.  28). 

These  three  deities,  too,  are  often,  as  we  have  seen  (p.  '>fi\ 
connected  with  the  Gunas  of  philosophy,  the  idea  being  that 
when  the  one  Universal  Spirit  is  dominated  by  activity  (Rajo- 
guna)  he  is  Brahma,  the  Creator ;  when  dominated  by  good- 
ness (Sattva-guna)  he  is  Vishnu,  the  Preserver ;  when  dominated 
by  indifference  (Tamo-guna)  he  is  Siva,  the  Dissolver. 

Properly,  according  to  the  true  theory  of  Brahmanism,  no 
one  of  these  three  ought  to  take  precedence  over  the  other 
two.  They  are  equal,  and  their  functions  are  sometimes  inter- 
changeable, so  that  each  may  represent  the  Supreme  Lord 
(Paramesvara),  and  each  may  take  the  place  of  the  other, 
according  to  the  sentiment  expressed  by  the  greatest  of  Indian 
poets,  Kalidasa  (Kumara-sambhava,  Griffith,  VIL  44): — 

In  those  three  Persons  the  one  God  was  shown— 
Each  first  in  place,  each  last— not  one  alone  ; 
Of  Brahma,  Vishnu,  Siva,  each  may  be 
First,  second,  third,  among  the  blessed  Three. 

There  is  a  well-known  Tri-mQrti  sculptured  out  of  the  rock 
in  the  caves  of  Elephanta,  at  Bombay.  Three  majestic  heads 
are  represented  springing  out  of  one  body.  The  triangle 
[Trikoua)  is  also  used  to  symbolize  this  triune  co-equality. 

In  the  later  mythology  this  co-equality  was  denied,  the 

difference    in   the   characters    of  the  three  gods  being  well 

illustrated  by  a  story  from  Bhagavata-purana,  X.  89 : — 

A  dispute  once  arose  among  the  sages  which  of  the  three  gods 
was  greatest.     They  applied  to  the  greatest  of  all  sages— Bhngu— to 

'  Compare  p.  10. 


46  Mythological  Brahmanisin. 

determine  the  point.  He  undertook  to  put  all  three  gods  to  a  severe 
test.  He  went  first  to  Brahma,  and  omitted  all  obeisance.  The  god's 
anger  blazed  forth,  but  he  was  at  length  pacified.  Next  he  went  to 
the  abode  of  Siva,  and  omitted  to  return  the  god's  salutation.  The 
irascible  god  was  enraged,  his  eyes  flashed  fire,  and  he  raised  his 
Trident  weapon  to  destroy  the  sage.  But  the  god's  wife,  Parvati,  in- 
terceded for  him.  Lastly,  Bhrigu  went  to  the  heaven  of  Vishnu,  whom 
he  found  asleep.  To  try  his  forbearance,  he  gave  the  god  a  good  kick 
on  his  breast,  which  awoke  him.  Instead  of  showing  anger,  Vishnu 
asked  Bhrigu's  pardon  for  not  having  greeted  him  on  his  first  arrival. 
Then  he  declared  he  was  highly  honoured  by  the  sage's  blow.  It  had 
imprinted  an  indelible  mark  of  good  fortune  on  his  breast.  He  trusted 
the  sage's  foot  was  not  hurt,  and  began  to  rub  it  gently.  '  This,'  said 
Bhrigu,  '  is  the  mightiest  god ;  he  overpowers  his  enemies  by  the  most 
potent  of  all  weapons — gentleness  and  generosity.' 

These  three  gods  differ  from,  and  are  superior  to,  all  other 
divine  and  human  organisms,  in  that  they  are  not  subject  to 
transmigrations.  They  are  beings  who  have  attained  the 
highest  condition  possible,  short  of  absorption  into  Brahma. 

And  of  these  three,  Vishnu,  the  Pervader  and  Preserver  of 
all  nature,  is  the  most  human,  as  he  is  also  the  most  humane, 
in  his  character,  attributes,  and  sympathies,  and  therefore  the 
most  popular.  He  has  four  arms,  symbolical  of  the  power 
he  exerts  in  the  deliverance  of  his  worshippers.  Portions  of 
his  divine  nature  have  descended  in  earthly  incarnations  to 
deliver  the  earth  in  times  of  danger  and  emergency.  They 
are  still  continually  descending  in  good  men  and  living 
teachers. 

Whether,  in  fact,  Vishnu  be  connected  with  light,  with  heat,- 
with  air,  or  with  water,  it  is  evident  that  his  function  is  that  of 
a  divine  Pervader,  infusing  his  essence  for  special  purposes 
into  created  things,  animate  and  inanimate ;  for  example,  into 
stones,  such  as  the  black  Salagrama ;  into  rivers,  such  as  the 
Ganges ;  into  trees  and  plants,  such  as  the  TulasI ;  into 
animals,  such  as  a  fish,  a  tortoise,  a  boar  ;  and  lastly,  into 
men. 

And  here  be  it  noted  that  the  idea  of  incarnation,  like 
every   other   idea   in    religion,   morality,   and   science,  when 


I 


MytJioIogical  Brahmanism.  47 

manipulated  by  the  Brfihman.s,  was  by  them  subtilized 
and  exaggerated.  Hence  the  incarnations  of  Vi.slinu  are 
really  descents  (avatara)  on  earth  of  portions  of  the  essence 
of  a  divine  person  already  possessing  a  material  form  (see 
p.  6^).  These  descents  were  undertaken,  reasonably  enough, 
for  preserving  the  world  when  in  pressing  emergencies,  espe- 
cially when  its  safety  was  imperilled  by  the  malice  of  evil 
demons ;  and  they  are  of  four  kinds  and  degrees. 

First,  the  full  descent,  as  in  Krishna,  one  of  the  heroes 
of  the  Epic  poem  called  Maha-bharata ;  secondly  (though 
chronologically  anterior),  the  partial  descent,  consisting  of 
half  the  god's  nature,  as  in  Rama,  hero  of  the  other  Epic 
called  Ramayana ;  thirdly,  the  quarter  descent,  as  in  Rama's 
brother  BJiai-ata ;  fourthly,  the  eighth-part  descent,  as  in 
Rama's  two  other  brothers,  Lahshmana  and  SatrugJuia. 
Distinct  from  these  is  the  constant  infusion  of  the  divine 
essence  into  ordinary  men,  animals,  and  inanimate  objects. 
It  is  well  known  that  men  whose  lives  have  been  made 
remarkable  by  any  peculiar  circumstances,  have  been  held 
by  the  Hindus  to  be  partial  incarnations  of  the  divine  nature, 
and  have  been  worshipped  accordingly. 

A  description  of  Vishnu's  other  incarnations  will  be  given 
hereafter  (see  the  chapter  on  Vaishnavism).  It  will  be  sufficient 
to  note  here  that  Krishna  and  Rama  are  the  only  two  in- 
carnations universally  worshipped  at  the  present  day. 

The  other  two  members  of  the  Indian  triad,  Brahma  and 
Siva,  have  no  such  human  incarnations  as  those  of  Vishnu, 
though  the  god  Brahma  is,  as  it  were,  humanized  in  his 
representatives  the  priests,  called  Brahmans. 

It  is  true  that  certain  incarnations  of  both  Brahma  and 
Siva  are  sometimes  mentioned  (as,  for  example,  the  form 
of  Siva  called  Virabhadra),  and  there  are  local  manifesta- 
tions of  these  deities  and  local  descents  of  Siva  in  human 
form.  Moreover,  Brahma  and  Siva  resemble  Vishnu  in 
having  wives  (called  respectively  Sarasvatl  and  Parvatl),  and 


48  Mythological  Brahmanism. 

it  may  be  noted  that  Siva  has  two  sons,  Ganesa,  lord  of  the 
demon  hosts,  and  Subrahmanya  (also  called  Skanda  and 
Karttikeya),  general  of  the  celestial  armies,  whereas  Vishnu 
has  no  sons  except  in  his  human  incarnations^. 

But  it  would  be  a  great  mistake  to  suppose  that  many 
deities  and  divine  manifestations  are  generally  worshipped. 
The  gods  of  the  Hindu  Pantheon  to  whom  temples  are  reared 
and  prayers  offered  are  not  numerous.  Forms  of  Vishnu, 
Siva,  and  their  consorts,  with  the  two  sons  of  Siva  (Ganesa 
and  Subrahmanya),  and  Hanuman  are  the  chief  temple- 
deities  of  India.  But  there  are  an  infinite  number  of  divine 
and  semi-divine  beings,  good  and  evil  demons,  every  one  of 
which  is  held  in  veneration  or  dread,  and  every  one  of  which, 
from  the  highest  to  the  lowest,  is,  like  all  the  others,  subject  to 
the  universal  law  of  re-absorption  into  the  one  divine  universal 
Essence  (Brahma).  Indeed,  at  the  end  of  vast  periods,  called 
days  of  Brahma,  each  lasting  for  4,320,000,000  human  years, 
the  whole  universe  is  so  re-absorbed,  and  after  remaining 
dormant  for  equally  long  periods,  is  again  evolved. 

Here,  then,  lies  the  motive  for  that  self-knowledge  and 
self-discipline,  which,  on  the  theory  of  universal  identity  of 
being,  would  at  first  view  appear  useless  and  absurd.  Though 
every  man  is  really  God  (Brahma),  yet  God,  as  if  for  His  own 
diversion,  ignores  Himself  and  submits  to  the  influence  of 
an  illusory  creative  force.  Under  that  influence  He  permits 
the  unity  of  his  nature  to  be  partitioned  into  an  infinite 
number  of  individual  personal  souls.  And  no  such  soul  can 
recover  the  condition  of  identity  with  the  Supreme  Soul 
except  by  raising  itself,  through  a  process  of  self-knowledge 
and  self-discipline,  to  a  state  of  complete  apathy  (vairagya)  and 
cessation  from  action.  In  fact,  a  condition  of  entire  mental 
vacuity  (citta-vritti-nirodha)  or  trance  (samadhi)  is  of  all  states 

'  Nor  were  Vishnu's  incarnations  prolific.  The  only  one  represented 
as  having  children  is  the  Rfima  of  the  Ramayana,  whose  twin  sons  were 
KuSa  and  Lava,  born  when  Sita  had  been  banished  to  the  hermitage. 


Mythological  Brdhmanism.  49 

the  most  desirable  as  leading  to  complete  identification  with 
the  one  universal  Spirit  or  Self.  Not  that  a  man  need  aim 
at  immediate  union  with  that  Spirit.  Such  union  may  be 
beyond  his  present  powers.  The  work  of  liberation  may  be 
the  labour  of  many  successive  lives  of  the  personal  soul  in 
body  after  body.  Nor  need  a  man's  aspirations  ever  rise 
as  high  as  re-absorption  into  the  one  eternal  absolute  im- 
personal Spirit.  He  may  simply  aim  at  achieving  union 
with  Brahma,  Vishnu,  or  Siva,  and  become,  like  them,  only 
one  degree  removed  from  such  re-absorption,  and  incapable 
of  further  transmigrations  (compare  p.  41,  11.  11-20). 

And  here,  too,  lies  the  motive  for  religious  worship  ad- 
dressed to  personal  gods  and  visible  forms.  For  one  means 
of  attaining  liberation  is  by  paying  homage  to  the  Supreme 
Spirit  as  manifested  in  persons  and  objects.  And,  indeed,  it 
is  a  cardinal  feature  of  the  Brahmanical  system,  that  the 
Universal  Spirit  can  never  itself  be  directly  or  spiritually 
worshipped,  except  by  turning  the  thoughts  inwards.  No 
shrine  or  temple  to  Brahma  is  to  be  found  throughout  all 
India.  The  one  eternal  Spirit  can  only  become  an  object  of 
meditation  or  knowledge.  The  Spirit  is  to  be  known  by  the 
spirit ;  for  he  is  enshrined  in  every  man's  heart ;  and  this 
internal  meditation  is  regarded  as  the  highest  religious  act, 
leading  as  it  does  to  perfect  spiritual  knowledge.  In  short, 
the  supreme  Brahma  is  properly  only  an  object  of  internal 
knowledge  (jneyam),  never  an  object  of  external  worship 
(upasyam),  except  through  secondary  manifestations. 

And  here  mark  the  vast  difference  between  the  Hindu  and 
Christian  ideaof  a  Trinity.  Brahma,  Vishnu,  and  Siva  have  only 
derived  or  secondary  existences,  but  the  Supreme  Being  may 
be  worshipped  through  the  worship  of  these  three  or  of  any 
one  of  the  three,  supposed  for  a  time  to  be  superior  to  the 
others.  It  is  even  possible  for  the  members  of  this  trinity  to 
worship  the  One  Spirit  through  the  worship  of  each  other, 
each  being  in  turn  regarded  as  inferior  (see  p.  45). 

E 


50  Mythological  Brdh?}ianism. 

Then,  in  the  next  place,  homage  may  be  paid  to  the 
Universal  Spirit  by  and  through  the  worship  of  the  inferior 
gods,  goddesses,  departed  ancestors,  living  Brahmans,  heroes, 
animals,  and  plants.  Even  stocks,  stones,  and  images  may 
represent  the  divine  presence,  and  so  become  media  through 
which  the  great  Eternal  Spirit  may  become  an  object  of 
adoration.  Nay,  the  very  demons  and  fiends  may  receive 
worship  both  from  gods  and  men,  if  by  self-mortification  and 
abstract  meditation  they  attain  nearness  to  re-absorption  into 
the  great  Spirit  of  the  Universe. 

I  once  asked  a  Brahman,  residing  at  Thana  (Tanna)  near 
Bombay,  to  give  me  some  explanation  of  the  fact  that  even 
Indians  of  cultivated  intellect  who  assert  the  unity  of  God, 
appear  to  us  Europeans  to  be  worshippers  of  many  gods. 
His  answer  was  to  the  following  effect  : — 

'  All  orthodox  Hindus  believe  in  one  Universal  Spirit,  who 
becomes  Supreme  Lord  over  all  (Paramesvara).  At  the  same 
time  they  believe  that  this  one  God  has  taken  various  forms, 
all  of  which  may  be  worshipped ;  just  as  gold  is  one  every- 
where though  it  may  take  different  forms  and  names  in  dif- 
ferent places  and  countries.  Every  man  chooses  his  favourite 
god  or  divine  object  to  which  he  pays  especial  homage.  Thus 
Agnihotri-Brahmans  regard  fire  as  their  favourite  form  of  the 
deity.  They  call  him  Agni-narayana.  Vedic  Brahmans 
make  a  god  of  the  Veda,  calling  it  Vcda-narayana.  Different 
places  have  also  their  favourite  presiding  deities.  Benares  is 
specially  watched  over  by  a  form  of  Siva  (called  Visvesvara) ; 
Pandharpur,  by  a  form  of  Krishna  (called  Vithoba).  Here  in 
Thana  we  have  temples  of  Vishnu,  Rama,  Krishna,  Viththal, 
Hanuman,  Siva,  Ganesa,  and  Devi.  The  oldest  and  most 
sacred  of  all  is  one  of  Siva,  in  the  character  of  Kaupinesvara. 
We  may  propitiate  every  one  of  these  gods  with  ceremonies 
and  sacrifices,  but  the  Supreme  Being  present  in  them  is  the 
real  object  of  all  our  offerings  and  religious  services.  At  the 
end  of  each  we  say:  "By  this  act  may  the  Supreme  Lord  be 


Noniistic  Brahnianisni.  5 1 

gratified!"  Hence,  though  to  you  we  appear  Polytheist.s, 
we  are  really  Monotheists.  Nor  are  we  Pantheists  in  your 
sense  of  the  term.  Only  our  deepest  thinkers  look  beyond 
the  personal  God  to  the  impersonal  Spirit  which  underlies 
everything.  We  educated  Brahmans  are  practically  Theists.' 
Even  the  Rig-veda  asserts  that  the  gods  are  one  Being  under 
different  names  (I.  164.  46  ;  VIII.  58.  2). 

No7nistic  Drahmanism. 

The  fourth  phase  of  Brahmanism,  like  the  third,  probably 
had  its  origin  in  the  need  of  organized  resistance  to  the  growth 
of  rationalistic  thought  and  liberal  opinions.  It  may  be  called 
Nomistic  Brahmanism,  because  it  represents  that  period  in 
Indian  religious  history  when  the  Brahmans  composed  codes 
of  law  {sinriti-sdstra,  dJiarma-sdstrd)  and  laid  down  precise 
rules  for  the  constitution  of  the  Hindu  social  fabric,  for  the 
due  co-ordination  of  its  different  orders,  and  for  the  regulation 
of  every-day  domestic  life. 

Indeed,  in  proportion  to  the  laxity  and  liberty  allowed  by 
Brahmanism  in  regard  to  all  forms  of  religious  and  philoso- 
phical thought,  is  the  unbending  rigidity  of  the  rules  and 
ordinances  by  which  every  act  of  a  man's  social  and  domestic 
life  is  fettered  and  controlled. 

These  rules  are  contained  in  three  principal  codes — (1)  the 
code  of  Manu;  (2)  that  of  Yajnavalkya ;  (3)  that  of  Parasara. 
The  first  is  held  to  be  the  most  sacred  of  the  three,  and  is 
certainly  one  of  the  most  remarkable  literary  works  that  the 
world  has  ever  produced.  It  was  originally  a  mere  local 
code,  embodying  rules  and  precepts — perhaps  by  different 
authors,  some  of  whom  may  have  lived  in  the  fifth  century 
I^.C,  or  even  earlier.  It  was  current  among  a  particular 
tribe  of  Brfdimans  called  Manavas,  who  probably  occupied 
part  of  the  North-western  region  between  the  rivers  SarasvatI 
and  Drishadvatl.  The  name  of  the  real  author  of  this  re- 
markable work  (the  present  form  of  which  is  now  held  to  be 

E  2 


52  Nomistic  Brahmanism. 

less  ancient  than  was  once  supposed)  is  concealed  under  the 
title  Manu'.  The  code  of  Yajuavalkya  is  founded  on  that 
of  Manu,  but  introduces  many  additional  rules,  some  of 
which  are  probably  as  late  as  the  first  or  second  century  of 
our  era.  It  is  always  associated  with  its  commentary,  the 
Mitakshara.  The  code  of  Parasara  is  a  still  more  modern 
work.  It  enacts  special  laws  adapted  to  the  fourth  or  most 
depraved  age  of  the  world  (called  Kali).  The  three  codes 
together  constitute  a  kind  of  bible  of  Nomistic  Brahmanism, 
much  in  the  same  way  as  the  Brahmanas  of  the  three  Vedas 
are  the  exponent  of  Ritualistic  Brahmanism.  But  the  Brah- 
manas are  concerned  with  public  Vedic  ritual  and  sacrifice 
{sriiti-karmaii),  the  law-books  with  domestic  ceremonies 
[smriti'karman). 

In  short,  the  three  chief  codes  are  mirrors  of  Indian  domestic 
manners,  little  affected  as  these  have  been  by  the  lapse  of 
more  than  two  thousand  years.  They  illustrate  very  strikingly 
the  close  intertwining  of  law,  politics,  and  social  life  with  re- 
ligion and  religious  ordinances.  '  The  root  of  all  law,'  says 
Manu,  '  is  the  Veda  and  the  traditions  of  those  who  know  the 
Veda.'  Accordingly  we  find  that  in  Manu's  code  the  rules 
of  judicature  and  of  caste  are  mixed  up  with  the  dogmas  of 
religion  and  philosophy  and  with  high  religious  and  moral 
precepts — many  of  them  worthy  of  Christianity — while  the 
punishment  assigned  to  every  kind  of  offence  is  carried 
beyond  the  grave  into  future  states  of  earthly  existence,  the 
doctrine  of  transmigration  of  souls  through  celestial  and  ter- 
restrial bodies  from  gods  to  stones  being  implied  throughout. 

The  superiority  of  the  Brahmans  is  the  hinge  on  which 
the  whole   social  organization  turns.     They  form  the  great 


'  Manu  is  supposed  to  speak  as  far  as  I.  60,  and  after  that  another 
sage  called  Bhrigu.  The  entire  code  is  fully  analysed  and  described  in 
my  'Indian  Wisdom,'  pp.  211-294.  The  late  Dr.  A.  Burnell's  opinion 
was  that  the  date  of  the  work  as  we  now  possess  it  must  be  placed  in 
the  fourth  century  of  our  era. 


Nomistic  BraJimajiisyn.  53 

central  body  around  which  all  other  classes  and  orders 
of  beings  revolve  like  satellites.  Not  only  are  they  in- 
vested with  divine  dignity,  but  they  arc  bound  together 
by  the  most  stringent  rules,  while  the  other  castes  are 
separated  from  them  and  from  each  other  by  insurmount- 
able barriers.  The  doctrine  of  Manu  was  that  the  deity 
created  distinct  kinds  of  men,  as  he  created  varieties  of 
animals  and  plants ;  and  that  Brahmans,  soldiers  {Ksha- 
triyas),  agriculturists  ( Vaisyas),  and  servants  [Sfidras)  were 
born  and  must  remain  from  birth  to  death  as  distinct  from 
each  other  as  elephants,  lions,  oxen,  and  dogs,  wheat,  barley, 
rice,  and  beans.  A  Brahman,  however,  could  have  four  wives, 
and  marry  a  woman  belonging  to  any  of  the  three  lower 
castes.  Inter-marriage  could  also  take  place  between  mem- 
bers of  all  the  four  classes,  or,  again,  between  the  castes  which 
resulted  from  such  intercourse.  Hence  arose  an  almost  end- 
less number  of  mixed  castes,  every  one  of  which  is  theo- 
retically restricted  to  its  own  occupation  and  bound  by  its 
own  rules. 

So  long,  then,  as  a  man  holds  to  the  rules  laid  down  by 
the  ancient  law-givers  and  assents  to  the  great  Vedanta  doc- 
trine that  the  one  all-pervading  impersonal  Spirit  Brahma 
underlies  everything  in  existence,  and  that  the  spirit  of  man 
is  identical  with  that  Spirit,  he  is  at  liberty  to  hold  any^ 
other  religious  opinions_lie_iik£S»_and  may  even_ass£iiL- to 
the  __tuillis_xiL_Chrislianity.  Perfection  is  attained  by  him 
alone  who  is  a  strict  observer  of  the  duties  of  his  caste  and 
accepts  the  above  doctrine.  Those  Brahmans  who  are  sound 
in  the  faith  with  regard  to  Brahma,  and  are  obedient  to 
Ikahmanical  caste-law  and  tradition  (smriti),  especially  as 
handed  down  by  the  great  Vedantist  Sarikarac'arya,  are 
called  Smartas.  Such  is  Brfdimanism — such  is  the  creed, 
which,  as  it  has  no  one  special  founder,  is  called  'the  system 
of  law  and  religion  prevalent  among  the  Aryas'  (Arya- 
charma). 


CHAPTER   III. 

Hindfdsm. 

General  Observations. 

We  now  pass  on  to  the  third  and  by  far  the  most  complex 
stage  of  Hindu  rehgious  thought.  And  at  the  very  outset 
we  are  called  upon  to  take  note  of  a  fact  illustrated  by  the 
whole  history  of  religious  thought  from  the  earliest  times, 
namely,  that  a  merely  spiritual  and  impersonal  religion  is 
quite  incapable  of  taking  hold  of  the  masses  of  mankind  or 
satisfying  their  religious  requirements.  Something  more  was 
needed  for  vast  populations  naturally  craving  for  personal 
objects  of  faith  and  devotion,  than  the  merely  spiritual  pan- 
theistic creed  of  Brahmanism. 

The  chief  point,  then,  which  characterizes  Hinduism  and 
distinguishes  it  from  Brahmanism  is  that  it  subordinates  the 
purely  spiritual  Brahman  (nom.  Brahma)  with  its  first  mani- 
festation Brahma,  to  the  personal  deities  Siva  and  Vishnu 
or  to  some  form  of  these  deities;  while  it  admits  of  numerous 
sects,  each  sect  exalting  its  own  god  to  the  place  of  the 
Supreme.  Yet  we  must  guard  against  the  idea  that  Hinduism 
has  superseded  Brahmanism,  or  that  they  are  mutually  an- 
tagonistic. The  latter  system  is  pantheistic,  whereas  Hinduism 
is  theistic  ;  but  in  India  forms  of  pantheism,  theism,  and 
polytheism  are  ever  interwoven  with  each  other. 

At  any  rate  it  is  certain  that  the  worship  of  personal 
gods  was  a  part  of  pantheistic  Brahmanism  long  before 
Siva  and  Vishnu  became  the  exclusive  favourites  of  par- 
ticular sects.  This  I  have  already  pointed  out  in  explaining 
the  principal  doctrines  of  orthodox  Brahmanism.      Perhaps 


Hinduism.     Gcnc7'al  Odscrvations.  55 

the  most  trustworthy  exponent  of  the  Arya-dharma  or  Brah- 
manical  system  was  the  great  teacher  Saiikara  (commonly 
called  Sarikaracarya),  who  was  a  native  of  Kerala  (Malabar), 
and  lived  about  the  beginning  of  the  eighth  century  of  our  era. 
lie  was  a  Brahmacarl,  or  unmarried  Brfdiman  under  a  vow 
of  perpetual  celibacy;  and  it  may  be  noted  here  as  one  of 
the  inconsistencies  of  the  Hindu  religion,  that  in  no  other 
system  is  the  duty  of  marriage  so  strictly  enjoined,  and  in 
no  other  system  is  the  importance  of  abstaining  from  wedlock 
as  a  means  of  gaining  influence  for  the  propagation  of  reli- 
gious opinions  so  frankly  admitted.  Undoubtedly  Saiikara 
is  the  chief  representative,  and,  so  to  speak,  the  very  incarna- 
tion of  strict  Brahmanism  ;  and  if  it  be  possible  to  point  to 
any  one  real  historical  concrete  personality  around  which 
Brahmanical  doctrines  may  be  gathered,  it  is  certain  that 
we  must  look  to  Saiikara  rather  than  to  the  legendary 
Vyasa,  even  though  the  latter  be  the  reputed  author  of  the 
Vedanta-Sutras. 

Yet  so  utterly  barren  is  India  in  both  history  and  bio- 
graphy, that  very  little  is  known  of  the  life  of  perhaps  one 
of  the  greatest  religious  leaders  she  has  ever  produced. 

It  is  nevertheless  a  well -ascertained  fact  that  Saiikara 
founded  the  monastery  (matha)  of  Sriiigeri  (Sririga-giri)  in 
the  ]\Iysore  country,  as  well  as  three  others  in  Northern, 
Western,  and  Eastern  India\  to  the  Headship  over  each 
of  which  one  of  his  chief  disciples  was  appointed  by  him- 
self These  establishments  had  a  complete  ecclesiastical 
organization  and  a  regular  provision  for  self-perpetuation,  so 
that  the  spiritual  powers  of  the  first  Head  of  the  community 
were  transmitted  by  a  kind  of  apostolical  succession  through 
a  line  of  succeeding  Heads,  regularly  elected. 

The   most    noted    successor    of    Saiikara    at    the    Sriiigeri 


^  That  in  the  North  is  at  Badrinath  in  the  Himalayas,  that  in  the 
West  at  Dvarika  in  Kathiawar,  that  in  the  East  at  Jagannath-purl. 


56  Hindiiisju.     General  Observations. 

monastery  was  Sayana-Madhava\  the  well-known  author 
of  the  Rig-veda  commentary,  who  lived  in  the  fourteenth 
century.  Sahkara  himself,  though  he  managed  to  write  a 
vast  number  of  treatises  on  the  Vedanta  philosophy,  led  an 
erratic,  restless,  controversial  life,  and  died  early,  probably 
at  Kedarnath  in  the  Himalayas,  at  the  age  of  thirty-two. 

He  is  thought  by  some  to  have  inculcated  the  preferential 
worship  of  the  god  Siva 2,  of  whom  some  declare  him  to  have 
been  an  incarnation.     Others  maintain  that  he  himself  had 
a  preference  for  Vishnu,  the  real  fact  being  that  he  looked 
on  both  these  gods  as  equally  manifestations  of  the  one  Uni- 
versal  Spirit.     For,  in  truth,  all  orthodox   Brahmans  are  in 
a  general  way  both  Saivas  and  Vaishnavas,  and  any  Brahman 
may  have  a  preference   for   the  worship  of  either  Siva  or 
Vishnu  without  any  necessary  exclusive  devotion  to  either, 
and  without  identifying  either  with  the  Supreme  Spirit  of 
the  Universe.     It  is  well  known,  in  fact,  that  most  Smarta 
Brahmans  in  the   present  day,  who  are   followers   of   Sah- 
karacarya,  have  a  leaning  towards  the  worship   of  the   one 
personal  deity  Siva^. 

On  the  other  hand,  very  few  even  of  the  most  ignorant  and 
bigoted  Hindus  who  are  exclusive  worshippers  of  the  per- 
sonal deities  Siva,  Vishnu,  or  their  consorts,  and  whose  highest 
spiritual  aim  is  to  be  a  dweller  in  the  heaven  of  one  of  those 

*  The  identity  of  Sayana  and  Madhava  is  disputed,  but  the  prepon- 
derance of  evidence  seems  to  me  in  favour  of  the  late  Dr.  A.  Burnell's 
view  as  expressed  in  his  Vansa-Brahmana. 

'-  His  sanctity  was  in  such  repute  that  he  was  held  to  have  worked 
several  miracles,  amongst  others,  transferring  his  own  soul  for  a  time 
into  the  dead  body  of  a  king  Amaru,  that  he  might  become  the  husband 
of  the  king's  widow  for  a  brief  period,  and  so  learn  by  experience  how 
to  argue  on  amatory  subjects  with  the  wife  of  a  Brahman  named  Man- 
dana,  who  was  the  only  person  he  had  never  conquered  in  argument. 
This  is  described  in  a  poem  called  Amaru-sataka,  to  which  a  mystical 
interpretation  is  given. 

'^  Two  Smarta  Brahmans  accompanied  me  round  the  temple  of  Siva 
at  Tinnevelly.  They  both  had  three  horizontal  lines  (tri-pundra)  made 
with  Vibhuti  on  their  foreheads,  which  proved  their  preference  for  Siva. 


Hinduisvi.     General  Observations.  57 

gods,  are  uninfluenced  by  an  undercurrent  of  pantheistic  ideas. 
Nor  would  it  be  easy  to  find  any  thoughtful  Hindu  who,  if 
closely  questioned,  would  repudiate  as  untenable  the  doc- 
trine of  an  omnipresent,  impersonal,  bodiless  and  passionless 
(nirguna)  spiritual  Essence,  pervading  and  animating  the 
Universe.  In  short,  the  more  closely  the  theistic  phase  of 
the  Hindu  religion  is  examined,  the  more  plainly  will  it  be 
found  to  rest  on  a  substratum  of  Brfdimanism.  The  one 
system  is  to  a  great  extent  a  development  of  the  other,  and 
to  draw  a  line  of  separation  between  the  two,  or  to  say  where 
one  ends  and  the  other  begins,  is  impossible. 

Nevertheless  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  Hinduism  is  far 
more  than  a  mere  form  of  theism  resting  on  Brfdimanism. 
It  presents  for  our  investigation  a  complex  congeries  of 
creeds  and  doctrines  which  in  its  gradual  accumulation  may 
be  compared  to  the  gathering  together  of  the  mighty  volume 
of  the  Ganges,  swollen  by  a  continual  influx  of  tributary 
rivers  and  rivulets,  spreading  itself  over  an  ever-increasing 
area  of  country,  and  finally  resolving  itself  into  an  intricate 
Delta  of  tortuous  streams  and  jungly  marshes. 

Nor  is  it  difl^cult  to  account  for  this  complexity.  The 
Hindu  religion  is  a  reflection  of  the  composite  character  of 
the  Hindus,  who  are  not  one  people  but  many.  It  is  based 
on  the  idea  of  universal  receptivity.  It  has  ever  aimed  at 
accommodating  itself  to  circumstances,  and  has  carried  on  the 
process  of  adaptation  through  more  than  three  thousand  years. 
It  has  first  borne  with  and  then,  so  to  speak,  swallowed, 
digested,  and  assimilated  something  from  all  creeds.  Or,  like 
a  vast  hospitable  mansion,  it  has  opened  its  doors  to  all 
comers ;  it  has  not  refused  a  welcome  to  applicants  of  every 
grade  from  the  highest  to  the  lowest,  if  only  willing  to  acknow- 
ledge the  spiritual  Headship  of  the  Brahmans  and  adopt  caste- 
rules. 

In  this  manner  it  has  held  out  the  right  hand  of  brotherhood 
to  the  Fetish-worshipping  aborigines  of  India  ;  it  has  stooped 


58  Hindfdsm.     General  Observations, 

to  the  demonolatry  of  various  savage  tribes ;  it  has  not  scru- 
pled to  encourage  the  adoration  of  the  fish,  the  boar^,  the 
serpent,  trees,  plants,  stones,  and  devils ;  it  has  permitted  a 
descent  to  the  most  degrading  cults  of  the  Draviclian  races ; 
while  at  the  same  time  it  has  ventured  to  rise  from  the  most 
grovelling  practices  to  the  loftiest  heights  of  philosophical 
speculation  ;  it  has  not  hesitated  to  drink  in  thoughts  from  the 
very  fountain  of  Truth,  and  owes  not  a  little  to  Christianity 
itself.  Strangest  of  all,  it  has  dissipated  the  formidable  organ- 
ization  which  for  a  long  period  confronted  Brahmanism,  and 
introduced  doctrines  subversive  of  Sacerdotalism.  It  has  art- 
fully appropriated  Buddhism,  and  gradually  superseded  that 
competing  system  by  drawing  its  adherents  within  the  pale  of 
its  own  communion.  Without  doubt  the  most  remarkable 
fact  in  the  history  of  the  interaction  between  Brahmanism 
and  the  mighty  movement  initiated  by  one  of  the  greatest  of 
this  earth's  teachers  was  the  resolution  of  his  teaching  into 
Saivism  and  Vaishnavism.  Whether  both  these  systems  in 
their  present  form  preceded  Buddhism  may  be  doubtful.  At 
any  rate  they  co-existed  with  it  for  a  time,  and  became 
greatly  amplified  and  modified  by  its  absorption. 

This  interchangeableness  between  Buddhism,  Saivism, 
and  Vaishnavism  will  be  more  fully  explained  in  a  future 
chapter.  It  will  be  sufficient  at  present  to  note  that  the 
Buddha  had  two  distinct  characters.  In  his  first  and  earliest 
character  he  was  the  typical  ascetic  (Sramana),  the  great 
teacher  of  the  power  to  be  gained  by  self-suppression  and 
by  conquest  of  the  passions.  In  his  second,  he  was  the 
great  friend  of  the  common  people  who  advocated  universal 
brotherhood,  universal  equality,  and  universal  compassion  for 


^  A  fish  and  a  boar  form  two  of  the  incarnations  of  Vishnu.  The 
former  is  also  the  emblem  of  the  Pandya  kingdom  in  the  South,  and 
MinacI,  the  goddess  worshipped  in  the  great  temple  of  Madura,  is  said 
to  mean  fish-ruler,  though  the  Brahmans  have  converted  it  into  '  fish- 
eyed  '  (Mlnakshi). 


H'lndfiis^n.     General  Observations.  59 

all  forms  of  animal  life.  In  both  these  characters  the  personal 
god  Siva  and  the  incarnated  Vishnu  were  his  counterparts,  and 
ultimately  superseded  him^.  Siva  was  the  Buddha  in  his  as- 
cetical  character.  Vishnu  was  the  Buddha  in  his  character  of  a 
beneficent  and  unselfish  lover  and  friend  of  the  human  race. 

And  as  Saivism  and  Vaishnavism  superseded  Buddhism, 
so  they  became  the  chief  constituents  of  modern  Hinduism. 
All  shades  and  subdivisions  of  Hindu  sectarianism  may  be 
included  under  one  or  other  of  these  two  heads. 

Nevertheless  it  is  customary  to  speak  of  Hinduism  as 
divided  into  five  principal  sects:  i.  Worshippers  of  Siva 
(Saivas).  2.  Worshippers  of  Vishnu  (Vaishnavas).  3.  Wor- 
shippers of  the  female  personifications  of  divine  power,  re- 
garded as  the  wives  of  the  deities  (Saktas).  4.  Worshippers 
of  Ganesa  or  Ganapati  as  god  of  luck  and  good  fortune 
(Ganapatyas).  5.  Worshippers  of  the  sun  (Sauras).  Besides 
these  five,  a  sixth  called  Tasupata  (or,  by  Ananda-giri, 
Kapalika),  found  in  the  South  of  India,  is  occasionally 
added,  though  this  is  nothing  but  a  subdivision  of  the 
Saivas.  All  these  six  sects  are  said  by  South-Indian 
Pandits  to  have  been  founded  by  Sankarac'arya,  who  is 
therefore  often  called  Shan-mata-sthapaka,  'the  establisher 
of  six  forms  of  doctrines.'  In  reality  that  great  teacher 
was,  as  we  have  seen,  utterly  opposed  to  all  sectarian 
ideas.  In  the  Sahkara-vijaya  of  Ananda-giri  (a  work  written 
by  one  of  his  disciples  in  the  ninth  or  tenth  century)  he 
is  described  as  having  traversed  India  in  every  direction 
for  the  purpose  of  combating  and  refuting  an  immense 
number  of  sectarian  systems  which  had  taken  root  in  the 
country.  There  were  at  that  time,  besides  the  worshippers 
of  Siva  and  Vishnu,  votaries  of  Brahma,  of  the  Sun,  Moon, 
Kuvera,  Yama,  Varuna,  Sesha,  and  others  innumerable. 
Many  of  these  were   extirpated   through    Saiikara's   instru- 

'  There  are  clear  traces  that  the  great  Vaishnava  temple  of  Jagannath 
In  Orissa  was  originally  dedicated  to  some  Buddhist  tooth-relic. 


6o  Hinduism.     General  Observations. 

mentality,  and  many  have  since  disappeared  ;  but,  curiously 
enough,  it  is  alleged  that  out  of  pity  to  the  present  de- 
generate age  (Kali-yuga),  when  men  are  incapable  of 
apprehending  the  pure  unity  of  the  Godhead,  Sankara  al- 
lowed six  sects  to  remain.  It  was  only  by  degrees  that  the 
sectarian  character  of  all  but  the  first  two  disappeared. 

The  question  then  arises  here : — What  is  the  present  idea 
implied  by  a  Hindu  sect,  and  how  are  we  to  explain  its 
true  relationship  to  the  orthodox  body  from  which  it  is 
supposed  to  be  severed?  It  is  clear  from  what  has  been 
already  stated  that  every  Hindu  creed  ought  to  be  regarded 
as  unorthodox  which  exalts  favourite  personal  deities  to  the 
position  of  an  eternal,  supreme,  self-existing  God,  in  contra- 
vention of  the  dogma  that  even  the  highest  divine  person- 
alities are  finite  beings  destined  ultimately  to  be  absorbed 
into  the  one  infinite  Brahma. 

Saivism  and  Vaishnavism  are  undoubtedly  in  this  respect 
the  two  principal  offenders  against  orthodoxy;  and  in  so 
offending  they  may  justly  be  regarded  as  two  vast  sects. 
Since,  however,  Saivism  and  Vaishnavism  constitute,  so  to 
speak,  the  very  warp  and  woof  of  the  later  Hindu  religion, 
and  since  it  is  possible  to  be  a  worshipper  of  Siva  or  Vishnu 
without  being  a  sectarian,  it  will  be  better  to  apply  the 
term  'sect'  to  separate  religious  communities  within  the  pale 
of  these  two  chief  systems,  organized  and  consolidated  by 
particular  teachers  with  the  object  of  inculcating  entire 
devotion  towards,  and  exclusive  dependence  on  either  Siva 
or  Vishnu,  and  securing  through  the  instrumentality  of  one 
or  other  of  these  gods  the  welfare  and  salvation  of  every 
individual  member  of  the  society. 

At  the  same  time,  it  must  be  carefully  noted  that  Hindu 
sectarianism  is  something  more  than  the  mere  exclusive 
worship  of  a  personal  god.  It  implies  more  or  less  direct 
opposition  to  the  orthodox  philosophy  of  Brahmanism,  and  to 
its  essential  doctrine  of  the  non-duality  of  spirit.     We  have 


Hinduism.     General  Observations.  6 1 

already  seen,  indeed,  that  vague  pantheistic  ideas  may  always 
be  found  lurking  at  the  root  of  every  variety  of  Hindu  sec- 
tarian doctrine.  Such  ideas  arc  naturally  inwoven  into  the 
very  texture  of  every  Hindu  mind.  But  Hinduism  bristles 
on  all  sides  with  contradictions,  inconsistencies,  and  surprises ; 
and  it  is  remarkable  that  the  generally  prevalent  Brahmanical 
doctrine  of  the  identification  of  the  living  personal  soul  of 
man  with  the  one  universal  Soul  of  the  universe  is  the  one 
peculiar  dogma  which  various  sects  of  both  Saivas  and 
Vaishnavas  —  especially  the  latter — theoretically  repudiate, 
dilute,  or  qualify.  For  indeed  the  soul  of  man  if  it  strives 
to  give  expression  to  its  feeling  of  complete  and  exclusive 
devotion  to  a  personal  deity  as  to  a  Creator  and  Saviour, 
cannot  at  the  same  moment  assent  to  doctrines  which  de- 
stroy its  own  separate  personality. 

To  mark  this  complete  and  exclusive  devotion  more  clearly, 
and  to  bind  each  sect  together  by  some  common  bond  of 
union,  a  short  form  of  words  called  a  Mantra  (for  example, 
Otn  Rdnidya  namah,  reverence  to  Rama),  expressive  of  ex- 
clusive and  absolute  trust  in  the  particular  god  worshipped 
as  representing  the  Supreme  Ruler  of  the  world,  is  taught 
by  each  community  and  its  repetition  made  a  necessary 
condition  of  salvation  through  him. 

Moreover,  the  privilege  of  imparting  this  Mantra  is  by  each 
sect  confined  to  a  regular  constituted  order  of  men  (Gurus). 
The  communication  of  it  (usually  in  a  whisper)  is  called  ini- 
tiation (diksha),  and  acquaintance  with  it  is  held  to  be  essential 
to  admission  within  the  pale  of  the  society.  When  any  such 
system  has  been  fully  organized  it  is  called  a  Sampradaya — 
a  word  meaning  a  particular  body  of  traditionary  doctrines 
handed  down  through  a  succession  of  teachers^. 


'  It  may  also  be  designated  by  such  terms  as  Darsana  or  Mata — that 
is,  particular  views  or  opinions  on  religion  or  philosophy.  The  term 
Darsana,  however,  is  more  usually  restricted  to  the  six  regular  philoso- 
phical systems. 


62  Hindtdsm.     General  Observations. 

As  a- matter  of  fact  the  Sampradayas  or  separate  religious 
denominations  of  the  present  day  are  nearly  all  mere  sub- 
divisions of  Vaishnavism.  Not  that  Siva  has  been  dethroned 
by  Vishnu,  or  lost  any  of  his  importance  as  one  of  the  two 
chief  deities  of  modern  Hinduism.  What  is  meant  is  that, 
although  all  Hindus  pay  homage  to  Siva,  to  his  Consort  or 
Sakti,  and  to  his  two  sons  Ganesa  and  Skanda,  few  attach 
themselves  to  these  deities  as  to  personal  benefactors — few 
seek  to  be  initiated  into  their  Mantras,  or  pray  to  them  ex- 
clusively as  to  their  personal  creators  and  saviours. 

Certainly  no  one,  as  far  as  I  have  been  able  to  ascertain, 
ever  turns  to  any  one  of  these  gods,  or  invokes  their  in- 
tervention and  assistance  in  the  hour  of  death ^.  Similarly 
all  Hindus  adore  the  Sun  in  their  daily  prayers,  but  very 
few  in  the  present  day  ever  worship  him  exclusively  or  in 
what  may  be  called  a  spirit  of  sectarianism.  Several  sects 
of  Sun-worshippers  are  known  to  have  once  existed  and  to 
have  had  many  adherents,  but  they  have  all  now  died  out. 

In  reality  the  principle  of  faith  and  devotion  as  displayed 
towards  personal  gods  could  scarcely  have  taken  deep  root 
in  India  except  in  connexion  with  the  worship  of  a  god 
who  descended  upon  earth  as  the  child  of  earthly  parents 
for  the  promotion  of  man's  welfare,  and  whose  nature  in  his 
incarnations  became  quite  as  human  as  it  was  divine. 

And  here  mark  that  the  doctrine  of  incarnation  among 
the  Hindus  is  in  many  important  respects  different  from  the  J 
Christian  idea.  The  Sanskrit  language,  which  is  the  only 
language  of  the  Hindu  religion  and  the  only  source  of  theo- 
logical terms,  has  no  exact  equivalent  for  incarnation'^.  The 
common  word  is  Avatara,  which  means  'descent.'     Further- 


^  The  names  invoked  at  death  are  generally  those  of  Rama  andNarayana. 
The  late  Dr.  Rurnell  told  me  that  he  once  witnessed  the  execution  of 
thirteen  criminals  in  India  who  were  all  Saivas,  and  yet  all  called  on 
the  name  of  Rama  before  being  hanged. 

^  Unless  it  be  compounds  formed  with  deha^  milrli,  and  sdkshdt. 


Hinduism.     General  Observations.  d-^ 

more,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  intervening  between 
the  Supreme  Being  and  these  Avataras  must  be  placed  the 
forms  of  personal  deities  such  as  Brahma,  Vishnu,  and  Siva — 
each  of  whom  possesses  a  body  composed,  like  human  bodies, 
of  gross,  though  divine  and  ethereal,  particles^.  Strictly, 
therefore,  the  so-called  incarnations,  represented  by  heroes 
like  Rama,  ought  to  be  regarded  as  incarnations  of  incarna- 
tions ;  for  they  are  the  descent  of  portions  of  the  essence  of 
divine  beings  who  already  possess  bodies  composed  of  gross, 
though  divine,  particles,  and  who  condescend  by  being  born 
of  earthly  parents  to  assume  bodies  composed  of  human  gross 
particles.  It  is  true  that  such  descents  are  sometimes  at- 
tributed to  the  personal  gods  Siva  and  Brahma,  and  even  to 
other  gods  such  as  Indra,  Vayu,  Sesha  (for  example,  Arjuna 
and  the  heroes  of  the  Maha-bharata  are  incarnations  of  various 
deities) ;  but  we  must  bear  in  mind  that  the  only  universally 
acknowledged  and  generally  worshipped  incarnations  were 
those  of  Vishnu,  as  Rama  son  of  Dasaratha,  and  Krishna  son 
of  Vasudeva.  When  once  the  feeling  of  affection  for  these 
two  gods  had  rooted  itself  in  the  religious  sense  of  the 
people,  it  rapidly  gathered  strength  and  dominated  over 
every  other  feeling.  The  way  of  love  and  faith  (bhakti-marga) 
as  propounded  in  the  Puranas  and  Tantras-  superseded  the 
other  two  ways  of  salvation — knowledge  and  works  (juana- 
marga  and  karma-marga). 

It  even  triumphed  over  the  power  of  caste ;  for  an  en- 
thusiastic love  of  Rama  or  Krishna  w'as  theoretically  a  bond 
of  union  among  human  beings  stronger  than  all  social  ties, 
and  was  incompatible  with  differences  of  rank  or  antagonisms 
of  interest. 

'  See  the  account  of  the  structure  of  the  bodies  of  the  gods  at  p.  28. 

"^  Doubtless  a  form  of  the  doctrine  of  faith  maybe  traced  back  to  early 
times,  but  for  its  full  development  we  must  look  to  the  Bhagavad-gfta, 
a  comparatively  modern  episode  of  the  Maha-bharata,  to  the  Puranas 
and  Tantras,  and  to  a  scientific  formulation  of  the  doctrine  in  the 
Bhakti-sutras  of  Sanililya  probably  about  the  twelfth  century. 


64  Hindtdsni.     General  Observations. 

In  fact  the  leaders  of  religious  thought  in  India  were  all 
disciples  in  the  school  of  the  great  Buddha,  to  the  extent, 
at  least,  of  imitating  his  wisdom  by  preaching  religious 
equality  and  fraternity.  They  saw  that  their  popularity 
as  reformers  depended  on  their  attracting  adherents  from 
all  ranks,  high  and  low.  Hence,  every  great  religious  leader 
proclaimed  the  complete  social  equality  of  all  who  enrolled 
themselves  under  his  leadership.  Buddha  was  the  son  of 
a  petty  prince,  but  addressed  himself  to  the  populace.  In 
the  same  way  Vishnu,  in  his  descent  as  Krishna,  though 
of  the  kingly  caste,  was  brought  up  among  the  common 
people.  But  just  as  Buddhism  ultimately  fell  back  into 
Brahmanism,  so  has  every  movement  in  the  direction  of  liberty, 
equality,  and  fraternity  ended  by  a  return,  more  or  less  com- 
plete, to  the  original  condition  of  subjection  to  Brahmanical 
authority  and  obedience  to  the  law  of  social  distinctions. 

Practically,  therefore,  we  must  regard  Vaishnavism  as  the 
principal  home  of  Hindu  religious  sectarianism.  All  the 
chief  modern  sects  have  resulted  more  from  differences  of 
opinion  between  various  schools  of  Vaishnavas,  than  from  an- 
tagonism between  Saivism  and  Vaishnavism.  Nor  are  Saivism 
and  Vaishnavism  in  their  essence  antagonistic  systems.  They 
represent  different  lines  of  religious  thought ;  such  lines  ex- 
pressing a  contrast  rather  than  an  opposition.  So  far  indeed 
from  any  necessary  opposition  between  the  systems,  they  are 
a  necessary  complement  of  each  other.  For  the  worship  of 
the  composite  deity  Rudra-Siva  is  nothing  but  the  expression 
of  the  awe  felt  by  human  beings  in  the  presence  of  the  two 
mutually  complementary  forces  of  disintegration  and  reinte- 
gration ;  while  the  worship  of  the  personal  god  Vishnu  in  his 
descents  upon  earth  in  human  form  is  nothing  but  the  ex- 
pression of  the  very  natural  interest  felt  by  man  in  his  own 
preservation  and  in  the  working  of  the  physical  forces  which 
resist  dissolution. 

Certainly  in  the  present  day  Saivas  and  Vaishnavas  are 


Hinduism.     General  Observations.  65 

tolerant  of  each  other's  creeds,  both  appeaHng  to  the  Puranas 
as  their  special  Bible,  and  each  acknowledging  the  gods  of 
the  other  as  proper  objects  of  worship.  This  is  remarkably- 
illustrated  by  the  fact  that  in  some  parts  of  the  country  a  god 
called  Hari-Hara  (Vishnu-Siva)  is  worshipped,  who  represents 
the  union  of  the  two  divine  personalities  in  one.  There  is  a  long 
hymn  in  praise  of  this  twofold  deity  in  the  Hari-vansa  (181st 
chapter),  and  images  of  him  may  be  seen  here  and  there  in 
Southern  India.  For  example,  in  the  great  temple  at  Madura 
a  fine  carving  was  pointed  out  to  me  which  proved  to  be  a 
representation  of  Sahkara-Narayana  (  =  Hari-Hara) K  One  side 
of  the  figure  represents  half  the  body  of  Vishnu  with  a  hand 
holding  a  Sahkha,  while  the  other  side  is  an  image  of  Siva 
surmounted  by  half  a  head-dress  twisted  into  a  matted  coil 
with  the  lunar  crescent  conspicuous  on  it.  Then  again, 
wherever  in  any  city  a  large  temple  has  been  erected  to  Siva, 
a  similar  temple  dedicated  to  Vishnu  is  sure  to  be  conspi- 
cuous near  at  hand.  Indeed  the  shrines  of  the  two  gods  are 
not  unfrequently  found  in  close  juxtaposition  within  the  same 
sacred  enclosure.  For  instance,  on  the  hill  of  Parvati  (wife 
of  Siva)  near  Poona,  and  in  the  enclosure  of  her  temple,  I 
saw  a  shrine  of  Vishnu,  another  of  his  vehicle  Garuda,  and 
images  of  nearly  every  deity  of  the  Hindu  Pantheon  2. 

Nor  can  any  student  of  the  Maha-bharata  and  Puranas 
doubt  the  intcrchangeableness  of  the  functions  of  Siva  and 
Vishnu,  or  fail  to  perceive  that  each  divine  personality  has 
a  tendency  to  blend  or  merge  in  the  other.  In  the  Lihga- 
purana  (I.  i8ff.)  both  Brahma  and  Vishnu  are  said  to  spring 
from  Siva.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the  Maha-bhfirata  (Vana- 
parvan  499  ff.  and  Anusasana-p.  6806  ff.)  Brahma  is  described 


'  In  the  South  of  India  a  legend  is  current  which  makes  Vishnu 
assume  the  form  of  a  fascinating  woman  (mohini)  and  so  connect 
himself  with  Siva.     By  Saktas  Vishnu  is  often  held  to  be  female. 

^  So  also  in  the  precincts  of  the  temple  of  Hanuman  at  Kaira  I  saw 
a  shrine  of  Siva  and  nearly  every  other  god  ordinarily  worshipped, 

F 


66  Hi  minis  m.     General  Observations. 

as  springing  from  the  navel  of  Vishnu  when  he  was  lying 
in  placid  repose  on  the  serpent  of  infinity,  and  enjoying  the 
most  perfect  serenity  of  mind  ^ ;  whilst  Siva  or  Rudra  is  said 
to  have  been  produced  from  Vishnu's  forehead  when  his  spirit 
happened  one  day  to  be  roused  to  anger. 

Again,  Vishnu,  speaking  of  himself  (Santi-parvan  13 140, 
etc.),  says  :  '  I  am  the  soul  of  all  the  worlds.  It  was  myself 
whom  I  formerly  worshipped  as  Rudra.  If  I  were  not  to 
worship  the  boon -bestowing  Siva,  no  one  would  worship 
myself.  He  who  knows  him  knows  me ;  he  who  loves  him 
loves  me.'  ('Yas  tarn  vetti  sa  marn  vetti  yo  'nu  tarn  sa  hi 
mam  anu.')  This,  in  fact,  is  the  true  explanation  of  the 
homage  which  each  member  of  the  Triad  occasionally  pays 
to  the  other. 

Still  it  must  be  admitted  that  Saivism  and  Vaishnavism  are 
quite  distinct  systems,  and  that  each  sect  is  inclined  to  lay 
an  exaggerated  stress  on  its  own  particular  doctrines. 

In  ancient  times  these  differences  not  unfrequently  led 
to  rancorous  antagonism,  and  sometimes  even  to  violent  con- 
flicts. This  was  especially  the  case  in  the  South,  where 
Saivism  generally  triumphed  over  and  displaced  Vaishnavism  2. 
Even  in  the  present  day,  when  universal  toleration  is  the  rule, 
Saivas  and  Vaishnavas  like  to  maintain  their  distinct  cha- 
racteristics, which  they  exhibit  conspicuously  to  the  eye  by 
distinct  marks  on  their  foreheads  (called  tilaka,  pundra,  and, 
in  tlic  South  of  India,  nama  or  gandha). 

That  of  the  Saivas  consists  of  three  horizontal  strokes  (tri- 
pundra)  made  with  the  white  ashes  of  burnt  substances  (vibhuti), 
to  represent  the  destroying  character  of  their  god  Siva  ^  and 


One  reason  I  often  had  given  to  me  in  India  for  the  present  merging 
of  Brahma  in  Vishnu  was  that  Brahma  sprang  from  the  body  of  Vishnu. 
"  1  noticed  many  traces  of  the  conflict  in  the  South  ;  for  example, 
Vaishnava  sculptures  have  been  left  on  the  Gopuras  in  the  Saiva  temple 
of  Tanjore. 

'  The  ashes  doubtless  denote  that  the  body  must  ultimately  be  re- 
duced to  ashes. 


Hinduism.     General  Observations.  67 

that  of  the  Vaishnavas  is  an  upright  mark  (urdiiva-pundra) 
made  with  bright  red,  yellow,  and  white  colouring  substances 
(the  white  called  Gopl-c'andana  ^),  to  represent  the  foot-print 
of  their  human  and  humane  god  Vishnu. 

Again,  it  is  important  to  note  that  both  Saivas  and  Vaish- 
navas differ  in  the  mode  of  branding  their  breasts,  arms,  and 
other  parts  of  their  bodies  with  the  distinctive  marks  of  their 
sect.  Such  marks  are  burnt  in  with  red-hot  stamps,  some- 
times made  of  gold.  In  the  case  of  Saivas  they  represent  the 
weapons  and  symbols  of  Siva,  such  as  the  trident  and  the 
liiiga ;  while  the  favourite  brands  of  Vishnu  are  the  discus, 
the  club,  and  the  conch-shell.  This  practice  was  severely 
denounced  by  Sahkara^  but  apparently  with  little  effect. 

In  regard  to  rosaries,  the  rosary  (japa-mala)  used  by  Saivas 
is  a  simple  string  of  32  rough  berries  (or  that  number  doubled) 
of  the  Rudraksha  tree  (ELxocarpus  Ganitrus),  while  that  of  the 
Vaishnavas  is  made  of  the  wood  of  the  sacred  Tulasi  (Tulsl) 
shrubj  and  generally  consists  of  108  beads.  Such  rosaries  may 
be  worn  as  necklaces,  though  their  chief  use  is  to  be  employed 
as  an  aid  in  the  repetition  of  the  names  and  epithets  of  the 
deity  or  in  the  recitation  of  prayers.  Occasional  varieties  in 
the  material  and  form  of  the  rosaries  may  be  noticed  ^ ;  for 
example,  Saiva  ascetics  sometimes  carry  rosaries  formed  of 
the  teeth  of  dead  bodies  (danta-mala),  or  sling  serpents  round 
their  necks  for  necklaces.  On  the  other  hand,  Vaishnava 
rosaries  are  occasionally  but  rarely  made  of  lotus-seeds  (ka- 
malaksha). 

But  the  most  important  difference  to  be  noted  between 
Saivas  and  Vaishnavas  is  the  use  they  make  of  idols,  images, 
and   symbols.     Siva,  we  must  remember,  is  a  less    human 

^  This  is  said  to  be  the  soil  of  a  pool  near  Dvarika  in  which  the 
GopTs  drowned  themselves  on  learninjj  of  the  death  of  Krishna. 

^  The  Sankara-vijaya  shows  how  Sai'ikara  offered  the  most  strenuous 
opposition  to  this  practice  of  branding,  stigmatizing  it  as  a  heretical  and 
ridiculous  practice. 

•'  See  especially  my  book  *  Modern  India  and  the  Indians,'  p.  io8. 

F  Z 


6S  Hinduism.     General  Observations. 

and  far  more  mystical  deity  than  the  incarnated  Vishnu.  The 
character  in  which  he  is  most  frequently  worshipped  and 
propitiated  is  that  of  an  omnipotent,  terrible  God,  granting 
new  life  to  all  created  things,  but  only  through  death  and 
disintegration.  Hence  he  is  not  represented  by  the  image  of  a 
man,  but  by  a  mystic  symbol^ — perhaps  the  best  symbol  of 
delegated  creative  power— which  cannot  be  dressed,  deco- 
rated or  fed  with  food  or  put  to  sleep  like  a  human  being, 
but  is  supposed  to  be  in  a  condition  of  perpetual  heat  and 
excitement,  and  requires  to  be  cooled  and  appeased  by 
constant  showers  of  cold  Ganges  water,  and  cooling  Bilva 
(Bll  or  Bel)  leaves  applied  throughout  the  day  by  a  per- 
petual succession  of  worshippers^.  It  is  remarkable,  too, 
that  in  cases  where  food  is  offered  to  the  god  Siva,  it  is 
not  afterwards  eaten  by  his  votaries  (except  in  certain  special 
localities),  for  the  simple  reason  that  inauspicious  (amarigala) 
ideas  are  supposed  to  be  connected  with  his  office  of  causing 
death  3. 

On  the  other  hand,  since  Vishnu  is  god  in  his  more 
human  and  humane  aspect,  sympathizing  with  men's  trials 
and  condescending  to  be  born  of  human  parents,  he  is  usually 
represented  by  the  complete  image  of  a  well-formed  human 
being — generally  that  of  Krishna  or  Rama — which  is  every 
day  roused  from  a  supposed  nocturnal  slumber,  dressed, 
decorated  with  gold  and   jewels,  bathed,   fed  with   offerings 

'  That  is,  by  the  liiiga  or  image  of  the  distinctive  organ  of  the  male 
sex  (the  phallus),  never  in  the  mind  of  a  Saiva  connected  with  indecent 
ideas  nor  with  sexual  love,  though  impure  practices  have  certainly  been 
introduced  in  connexion  with  the  worship  of  Siva's  wife.  In  fact,  sexual 
passion  is  chiefly  associated  with  the  worship  of  Vishnu,  as  Krishna.  It 
is  curious  that  X'aishnavas  dislike  the  Saiva  liiiga  and  yet  allow  the 
most  impure  and  indecent  representations  on  the  walls  of  their  temples. 

*  Another  mode  of  worship  is  by  pradakshina  or  circumambulation, 
keeping  the  right  side  towards  the  object  worshipped.  In  many  Liiiga 
shrines  a  space  is  left  for  this  kind  of  homage. 

»  The  precept  is,  *  Leaves,  flowers,  fruit,  and  water  must  not  be  taken 
after  being  offered  to  Siva.'  But  at  the  great  temple  of  Bhuvanesvara 
and  a  few  other  places  an  exception  is  made. 


Hinduism.     General  Observations.  69 

of  cooked  and  uncooked  grain,  sweetmeats  and  fruits,  un- 
dressed and  put  to  sleep  again  like  an  ordinary  man,  while 
the  remains  of  the  food  offered  (prasada)  are  eagerly  con- 
sumed by  the  priests  and  attendants  \ 

And  here  I  may  point  out  that  a  great  distinction  is  to 
be  made  in  regard  to  the  comparative  sanctity  of  different 
kinds  of  symbols  and  images.  Some  are  called  svayambhu, 
that  is  existing  spontaneously,  and  are  of  their  own  nature 
pervaded  by  the  essence  of  the  deity.  These  are  either  not 
carved  at  all,  or  very  slightly  moulded  into  shape.  They  are 
merely  rough  stones  or  rocks  supposed  to  have  descended 
direct  from  heaven  or  to  have  appeared  miraculously  on  the 
soil.  They  are  the  most  sacred  of  all  material  objects  of 
adoration,  and  when  discovered,  temples  are  built  over  them. 
The  most  usual  idols  of  this  kind  are  stones  supposed  to 
represent  the  Linga  of  Siva,  and  when  shrines  are  built 
round  them,  a  Yoni  is  usually  (though  not  always)  added. 

Not  less  sacred  than  these  rough  stones  are  certain  small 
pebbles  found  in  rivers  and  polished  by  the  action  of  the 
water 2.  Of  these  the  pebbles  representing  the  Linga  of  Siva, 
called  Bana-lihga  or  Vana-lihga,  and  apparently  of  white 
quartz,  are  found  in  the  bed  of  the  Narbada  river.  The 
black  pebbles  representing  Vishnu  or  Krishna,  called  Sala- 
grama  (popularly  sal-gram),  and  generally  containing  am- 
monites imbedded  in  the  stone,  are  chiefly  found  in  the  river 
Gandaki.  Both  kinds  of  pebble  are  employed  in  the  domestic 
worship  of  Siva  and  Vishnu  known  as  Paiicayatana-puja  (to 
be  afterwards  described)  and  performed  by  householders  in 
their  own  houses.  Both  are  held  to  be  of  their  own  nature 
pervaded  by  the  special  presence  of  the  deity  and  need  no 


'  This  will  account  for  the  fact  that  few  villagers  can  afford  to  keep 
a  temple  dedicated  to  Krishna.  The  vestments,  ornaments,  decorations, 
and  paraphernalia  needed  are  too  expensive  ;  whereas  all  the  requisites 
for  the  worship  of  Siva  are  a  stone  linga,  bilva  leaves,  and  water. 

■^  Some  of  them  appear  to  be  artificially  rounded  and  polished. 


•JO  Hinduism,     Gmeral  Observations. 

consecration.  Offerings  made  to  these  pebbles — such  for  in- 
stance as  Bilva  leaves  laid  on  the  white  stone  of  Vishnu — are 
believed  to  confer  extraordinary  merit. 

A  second  form  of  idol  is  wholly  artificial.  This  is  carved 
by  masons  or  sculptors  and  not  held  sacred  until  the  Brah- 
mans  have  consecrated  it  by  long  ceremonies  and  the  repe- 
tition of  Vedic  texts.  When  such  idols  have  been  placed  in 
shrines  they  can  be  looked  at  by  an  unbeliever,  even  though 
the  consecration  they  have  received  is  supposed  to  have  filled 
them  with  the  essence  of  the  god  they  represent.  Artificial 
idols  and  symbols  of  this  kind  are  manufactured  in  large 
numbers  in  holy  cities,  not  so  much  for  general  worship  as 
for  votive  offerings  to  be  set  up  with  the  customary  form 
of  dedication  (pratishtha)  in  the  galleries  or  vestibules  of 
temples  or  under  sacred  trees,  or  to  be  kept  as  objects  of 
adoration  in  the  private  rooms  of  houses. 

Pious  persons  reckon  it  a  work  of  great  religious  merit  to 
cause  such  idols  and  symbols  to  be  made,  or  to  purchase  them 
for  dedication.  I  noticed  thousands  for  sale  in  the  streets  of 
Benares. 

Some  of  the  Lirigas  were  carved  out  of  stone,  and  some 
made  of  glass.  Serpents  are  occasionally  carved  round  them, 
just  as  the  images  of  Siva  in  human  form  are  often  ornamented 
with  serpents. 

One  other  difference  between  Saivism  and  Vaishnavism 
remains  to  be  noted.  Each  system  has  a  heaven  of  its  own, 
that  of  Siva  being  called  Kailasa ;  that  of  Vishnu  being 
known  as  Vaikuntha.  The  former  is  supposed  to  be  located 
in  the  Himalaya  mountains;  the  position  of  the  latter  is  not  so 
distinctly  fixed,  but  is  believed  by  some  to  be  in  the  mythical 
northern   peak   of  Mount    Meru^.      To   these    heavens    the 


'  The  temple  of  Srlrangam  at  Trichinopoly  is  supposed  to  be  a 
counterpart  of  Vaikuntha,  and  the  excavated  temple  at  Ellora  is  a 
counterpart  of  Kailasa. 


Hinduism.     General  Observatio7is,  71 

faithful  worshippers  of  Siva  or  Vishnu  are  respectively  trans- 
ported. There  amid  eternal  snows  and  inaccessible  crags 
they  are  thought  to  be  safe  from  future  transmigration. 
There,  too,  they  may  attain  to  the  highest  pinnacle  of  beati- 
fication, not  so  much  by  absolute  absorption  (sayujya)  into 
the  one  supreme  spirit  according  to  the  Vedanta  doctrine 
(see  p.  41) — for  such  complete  union  would  involve  loss  of  per- 
sonality— but  rather  by  dwelling  in  the  same  abode  with  their 
god  (salokya),  by  nearness  to  him  (samTpya),  by  assimilation 
to  his  likeness  (sarupya). 

Before  concluding  these  general  observations  it  may  be  well 
to  note  that  a  theory  has  gained  acceptance  in  some  quarters 
that  the  cultus  of  the  god  Siva  in  its  grosser  forms,  as  for 
example  in  the  homage  paid  to  the  Liiiga  and  to  demons, 
has  been  borrowed  from  pre-Aryan  races  and  non-Aryan 
aboriginal  tribes.  Even  the  cultus  of  various  forms  of  Vishnu 
is  held  by  some  to  be  traceable  to  the  same  source.  But  the 
explanations  I  have  given  will  I  hope  tend  to  show  that  Siva 
and  Vishnu  are  both  Brahmanical  gods,  though  they  have 
been  often  made  to  do  duty  for  local  deities,  and  have  fre- 
quently opened  their  arms  to  embrace  objects  of  worship 
outside  the  true  circle  of  Brahmanism. 

We  now  pass  on  to  a  more  detailed  account  of  the  later 
Hindu  system,  and  for  the  sake  of  perspicuity  I  purpose 
treating  of  the  various  phases  of  Hindu  doctrine  and  worship 
under  ten  principal  topics : — i.  Saivism,  or  devotion  to  the  god 
Siva  as  originally  an  impersonation  of  the  destructive  and 
reconstructive  forces  of  nature  in  male  form.  2.  Vaishnavism, 
or  devotion  to  the  god  Vishnu  as  originally  an  imperson- 
ation of  the  conservative  and  preservative  forces  of  nature 
in  male  form.  3.  Saktism,  or  devotion  to  the  wives  of  Siva 
and  Vishnu  as  impersonations  of  the  same  forces  of  nature  in 
female  form.  4.  Worship  of  tutelary  deities  who  protect  from 
misfortune  and  evil  influences.  5.  Demon-worship  and  spirit- 
worship   (Bhuta-puja).      6.    Hero-worship   and    man-worship. 


72 


Hindfiisvi.     General  Observations. 


7.  Ancestor- worship.  8.  Animal- worship.  9.  Plant-worship 
and  Tree-worship.  10.  Worship  of  natural  objects,  both 
those  which  move,  such  as  the  sun,  moon,  rivers,  etc.,  and 
those  which  are  fixed  and  immovable  (jada),  such  as  rocks, 
stocks,  stones,  etc. 

Six  other  topics  will  follow: — i.  The  Hindu  religion  in 
ancient  family-life.  2.  The  Hindu  religion  in  modern  family- 
life.  3.  Hindu  fasts,  festivals,  and  holy  days.  4.  Hindu 
temples,  shrines,  and  sacred  places.  5.  Hindu  caste  in  rela- 
tion to  industrial  occupations.     6.  Modern  Hindu  Theism. 

It  may  be  well  to  note  here,  for  the  benefit  of  those  to 
whom  such  expressions  as  Saiva,  Vaishnava,  etc.  may  appear 
strange,  that  it  is  usual  in  Sanskrit  to  convert  a  substantive 
into  an  adjective,  by  modifying  or  lengthening  the  vowel  of 
the  first  syllable.  Hence  Saiva  and  Vaishnava  are  merely  the 
adjective  forms  of  Siva  and  Vishnu. 


CHAPTER    IV. 


^< 


aivisvt. 

Saivism,  as  we  have  already  seen,  may  be  defined  as  the 
setting  aside  of  the  triune  equality  of  Brahma,  Vishnu,  and 
Siva,  and  the  merging  of  the  former  two  gods  in  the  god  Siva. 
But  it  is  also  more  than  this.  It  is  the  exaltation  of  Siva 
(whether  regarded  as  one  person  or  as  associated  with  a 
consort)  to  the  position  of  a  Supreme  Being,  infinite,  eternal, 
and  exempt  from  subjection  to  the  law  of  ultimate  absorp- 
tion into  the  Universal  Spirit.  It  is  his  identification  with 
Brahma  as  well  as  with  Brahma ;  with  the  one  impersonal 
Spirit  as  well  as  with  the  one  personal  God  ;  with  the  Atman 
and  I\Iaya  of  the  Vedanta  philosophy;  with  the  Purusha  and 
Prakriti  of  the  Sarikhya  system  ;  with  the  male  and  female 
generative  energies  operating  in  the  Universe ;  with  every 
conceivable  force  and  form  in  nature. 

Yet  it  ought  to  be  clearly  understood  that  the  identifica- 
tion of  Siva  with  the  one  impersonal  Spirit  of  the  Universe 
is  rarely  asserted  categorically  by  Saiva  sectarians  ;  for 
it  must  always  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  very  meaning 
of  Saivism  is  exclusive  devotion  to  a  personal  god  Siva, 
who,  unlike  the  impersonal  spiritual  Being,  possesses  a  bodily 
form,  and  can  think,  feel,  and  act.  In  entering,  therefore,  on 
the  subject  of  Saivism  we  arc  passing  from  pantheistic  to 
thcistic  ideas. 

The  Saiva  bible  or  supposed  inspired  authority  for  this 
elevation  of  the  god  Siva  to  the  highest  position  in  the  Hindu 
system  must  be  sought  for  among  the  eighteen  Puranas. 
These  writings  are  more  generally  in  favour  of  the  supremacy 


74  Saivism. 

of  Vishnu,  but  a  certain  number,  such  as  the  Liiiga,  Siva, 
Kurma  and  Skanda  Puranas,  make  Siva  supreme \ 

We  have  already  pointed  out  that  the  idea  of  a  Tri-murti 
or  triple  embodiment  and  personification  of  the  phenomena 
and  powers  of  Nature  was  adumbrated  in  the  Veda  and  fully 
developed  in  the  Maha-bharata. 

In  the  Veda  special  homage  is  given  to  three  gods  who  are 
the  representative  deities  of  the  three  worlds  and  the  ele- 
ments they  contain,  (i)  To  the  god  of  Fire  (Agni),  who  is 
the  god  on  the  earth.  (2)  To  the  god  of  Rain  associated  with 
the  gods  of  Storm  (Indra-Rudra),  who  are  the  gods  in  the 
atmosphere.  (3)  To  the  Sun-god  (Surya),  who  is  the  god  in 
the  heavens.  In  mythological  Brahmanism — of  which  the 
Maha-bharata  is  the  chief  exponent — these  three  Vedic  gods 
pass  into  Brahma  the  creator,  Rudra-Siva  the  destroyer  and 
recreator,  and  Vishnu  the  preserver.  But  the  act  of  the 
Creator  was  a  single  act.  Once  completed,  it  was  liable  to 
receive  scant  recognition  at  the  hands  of  the  beings  created. 
And,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  the  worship  of  Brahma  fell  into 
desuetude. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  acts  of  disintegration,  reintegration, 
and  maintenance  of  being  were  continuous  acts  of  the  deepest 
and  most  momentous  interest  to  the  whole  human  race,  and 
it  was  only  to  be  expected  that  the  homage  paid  to  the 
deities  who  presided  over  these  operations  should  increase  in 
intensity  and  culminate  in  a  mountain  of  superstition.  For, 
indeed,  three  remarkable  phenomena  could  not  fail  to  impress 
themselves  on  the  most  superficial  observers  of  the  processes 
of  nature.  First,  that  mysterious  and  awe-inspiring  forces 
are  ever  at  work  for  the  disintegration  of  every  material 
object  in  the  universe  ;    secondly,  that  vivifying   forces   are 


'  The  colossal  sculpture  of  the  Tri-murti  in  the  caves  of  Elephanta, 
excavated  twelve  or  thirteen  centuries  ago,  consisting  of  three  grand 
heads  in  high  relief,  represents  Brahma  in  the  centre,  Vishnu  on  the 
right,  and  Siva  on  the  left. 


Saivism.  7  5 

ever  being  exerted  for  the  reintegration  of  material  entities 
through  the  disintegration  of  other  entities  ;  thirdly,  that 
every  existing  material  entity  is  maintained  in  existence  by 
the  agency  of  sustaining  forces  which  help  it  to  resist  the 
action  of  the  forces  of  dissolution.  In  short,  it  was  clear  that 
the  three  processes  of  disintegration,  reintegration,  and  main- 
tenance of  being  are  perpetually  recurring  in  an  eternal  cycle 
—that  each  follows  on  the  other  and  that  each  is  necessary 
to  the  other. 

Now,  it  might  have  been  expected  that  the  authors  of 
Hindu  mythology  would  have  placed  these  three  distinct 
processes  under  the  control  of  three  distinct  deities.  But  so 
close  was  believed  to  be  the  connexion  between  the  work  of 
disintegration  and  that  of  reintegration  that  both  were  as- 
signed to  the  presidency  of  one  divine  personification,  who, 
in  this  two-fold  character  of  Destroyer  and  Re-constructor, 
ought  properly  to  be  designated  by  the  composite  name 
Rudra-Siva.  For  it  is  only  as  Rudra  that  he  is  the  lord  of 
Death  and  the  active  agent  in  dissolution  ;  and  it  is  only  as 
Siva,  'the  auspicious,'  that  he  reconstructs  after  destruction. 

And  here  at  the  outset  it  is  important  to  note  that,  in  his 
character  of  both  Rudra  and  Siva,  this  god  enjoys  a  cultus 
which  reaches  much  further  back  than  that  of  Vishnu  the 
maintainer  and  preserver.  Of  the  two  deities  Siva  is  un- 
doubtedly the  more  ancient.  He  was  the  first  to  receive 
special  adoration;  and  although  in  the  present  day  he  has 
fewer  exclusive  adorers  than  the  god  Vishnu,  his  worship  is 
even  now  more  generally  extended  (compare  note,  p.  78). 

The  name  of  Vishnu  occurs,  it  is  true,  in  the  Rig-veda,  but 
only  as  a  secondary  designation  of  the  Sun,  that  luminary 
being  better  known  by  other  more  important  names — such  as 
Surya,  Savitri,  Aditya. 

On  the  other  hand,  Rudra  appears  quite  early  in  the  Veda 
with  a  well-recognized  and  well-marked  personality  of  his 
own.    He  is  an  important  deity,  whose  anger  is  to  be  dreaded 


^6  Saivism. 

and   whose  favour  is  to  be  propitiated.     Probably  the  first 
office  or  function  connected  with  him  was  that  of  directing 
and  controlling  the  rage  of  the  howling  storms^.     As  god  of 
gale  and  tempest  he  is  father  of  the  destructive  storm-winds, 
who  are  also  called  Rudras,  and  generally  identified  with  the 
Maruts.     And  in  this  character  Rudra  is  closely  connected 
with  the  Vedic  Rain-god  (Indra),  and  with  the   still  more 
liighly  esteemed  Vedic  deity  Fire  (Agni),  which,  as  a  destroy- 
ing agent,  rages  and  crackles  like  the  roaring  tempest.     He 
is  also  nearly  related  to  Time  (Kala),  the  all-consumer,  and 
indeed  afterwards  identified  with  him-.     But  he  has  also  a 
more  agreeable  aspect  even  in  the  Veda.     He  is  not  merely 
the  awful  and  inauspicious  god  whose  thousand  shafts  bring 
death  or  disease  on  men  and  cattle ^     He  is  present  in  those 
health-giving  winds  which  chase  away  noxious  vapours.     He 
is  addressed  as  a  healer,  as  a  benefactor,  as  a  benevolent  and 
auspicious  being;  the  epithet  Siva  being  applied  to  him  in 
the  Veda  euphemistically  as  a  title  rather  than  as  a  name. 

Again,  in  the  later  Vedic  period  his  personality  becomes 
still  more  intensified,  and  his  name,  attributes,  and  functions 
infinitely  amplified,  varied,  and  extended.  For  example,  in 
the  Vajasaneyi-samhita  of  the  Yajur-veda  (XVI.  i,  etc.)  there 
is  a  w^ell-known  hymn  or  litany  called  the  Satarudriya  ad- 
dressed to  Rudra  in  his  hundred  aspects  and  surrounded  by 
his  countless  host  of  attendants.  In  this  hymn — a  hymn  which 
is  of  the  greatest  interest,  because  constantly  used  in  the  pre- 
sent day — he  is  described  as  possessing  many  contradictory, 
ncongruous,  grotesque,  and  wholly  ungodlike  attributes ;  for 
example,  he  is  a  killer  and  destroyer  ;  he  is  terrible,  fierce 
(ugra),  inauspicious  ;  he  is  a  deliverer  and  saviour ;  he  causes 

'  The  root  rud  meaning  to  roar  or  howl. 

*  In  tlie  Kailfisa  cave  at  Ellora  1  noticed  that  Siva  in  his  character  of 
Kala  was  represented  as  a  skeleton. 

'  Death  is  always  connected  in  the  Hindu  mind  with  something  in- 
auspicious (amangala)  and  impure. 


1 


Saivisin.  7  7 

happiness,  and  prevents  disease ;  he  has  a  healing  and  aus- 
picious body  (siva  tanuh)  ;  he  is  yellow- haired,  brown- 
coloured,  copper-coloured,  ruddy,  tall,  dwarfish ;  he  has  braided 
locks  (kapardin),  wears  the  sacred  thread,  and  is  clothed  in  a 
skin ;  he  is  blue-necked  and  thousand-eyed  ;  he  dwells  in 
the  mountains,  and  is  the  owner  of  troops  (gana-pati)  of 
servants  who  traverse  the  earth  obeying  his  orders ;  he  is 
ruler  and  controller  of  a  thousand  Rudras  who  are  described 
as  fierce  and  ill-formed  (virupa) ;  he  has  a  hundred  bows  and 
a  thousand  quivers  ;  he  is  the  general  of  vast  armies ;  he  is 
lord  of  ghosts,  goblins,  and  spirits  ;  of  beasts,  horses,  and 
dogs ;  of  trees,  shrubs,  and  plants ;  he  causes  the  fall  of 
leaves  ;  he  is  lord  of  the  Soma-juice  ;  he  is  patron  of  thieves 
and  robbers\  and  is  himself  a  thief,  robber,  and  deceiver;  he 
presides  over  carpenters,  chariot-makers,  blacksmiths,  archi- 
tects, huntsmen  ;  he  is  present  in  towns  and  houses,  in  rivers 
and  lakes,  in  woods  and  roads,  in  clouds  and  rain,  in  sun- 
shine and  lightning,  in  wind  and  storm,  in  stones,  dust,  and 
earth. 

If  then  this  great  deity  was  distinguished  even  in  the  Vedic 
period  by  so  great  a  variety  of  attributes  and  was  held 
capable  of  so  many  functions,  it  was  only  to  be  expected 
that  the  plasticity  and  all-comprehensiveness  of  his  godhead 
should  have  increased  with  the  advance  of  time.  It  was  only 
natural,  too,  that  the  desire  to  propitiate  him  should  have  be- 
come more  generally  diffused.  His  terrific  and  ungodlike 
character  was,  therefore,  kept  well  in  the  background,  and  his 
epithet  *the  blessed  or  auspicious  one  (Siva),'  who  brought 
life  out  of  death,  who  recreate'd  after  dissolution,  passed  into 
his  principal  name. 

^  In  the  drama  called  Mricchakatika  some  burglars  invoke  Skanda 
son  of  Siva  as  their  patron  deity.  At  present  nearly  all  the  degrading 
characteristics  of  the  god  have  been  transferred  to  the  form  of  his  consort 
called  Kali.  That  goddess  is  to  this  day  the  patron  and  guardian 
of  thieves,  robbers,  Thugs,  murderers,  and  every  kind  of  infamous 
rascal. 


78  ^aivism. 

Hence  also  Siva  became  to  his  worshippers  the  great  god 
(Maha-deva)  and  lord  of  the  universe  (jagat-pitri,  visva-natha), 
who,  although  he  has  numerous  forms,  is  generally  worshipped 
under  one  mystical  shape— a  plain  upright  stone,  the  sign  or 
symbol  (lihga)  of  generative  and  creative  power — scattered  in 
millions  of  shrines  over  every  part  of  India  ^  And  hence, 
too,  it  came  to  pass  that,  in  the  end,  this  so-called  great  god 
was  often  identified  with  the  one  universal,  all-pervading,  self- 
existent  Spirit  of  Brahmanical  philosophy  ^. 

Yet  it  is  remarkable  that  with  the  increasing  tendency  to 
exalt  the  deity  Siva  to  the  highest  pinnacle  in  the  Hindu 
system,  the  desire  to  intensify  his  more  human  character  and 
to  multiply  those  inferior  and  degrading  attributes  which  de- 
prive him  of  all  title  to  be  called  a  god  at  all,  increased  also. 
In  the  later  Indian  scriptures  he  has  1008  recognized  names 
(all  enumerated  in  the  Siva-purana  LXIX,  Anusasana-parvan 
XVII),  besides  countless  local  appellations  and  a  corporeal 
existence  almost  as  anthropomorphic  as  that  of  Vishnu. 

It  is  true  that  the  god  Siva  never  passed  through  the  pro- 
cesses of  birth,  childhood,  manhood,  or  any  of  the  stages  of 
a  recognized  human  existence  in  the  way  that  Rama  and 
Krishna  did  ^  yet  he  has  his  local  incarnations,  and,  irre- 
spectively of  these,  a  distinct  personality  of  his  own,  and  a 
biography  capable  of  being  written  with  more  precision  than 
that  of  Vishnu,  by  putting  together  the  allusions  and  descrip- 
tions in  the  Epic  poems  and  Puranas. 

In  the  first  place,  with  regard  to  his  supposed  residence, 
wc  arc  informed  in  these  writings  that  his  abode  is  Kailasa  in 
the  Himalaya,  which   is   also   that   of  his   countless   troops 

'  The  number  of  Liiigas  in  India  is  estimated  at  three  krores 
( ^  30  millions). 

'  Sayan.!,  the  great  commentator  on  the  Rig-veda,  in  the  opening 
prayer  to  Siva  (identified  with  the  Supreme)  asserts  that  the  Veda  was 
his  breath  (u<f(^hvasitam). 

'  Only  a  few  local  South-Indian  legends  make  him  go  through  human 
births. 


^aivism.  79 

(Ganas)  of  servants^,  as  well  as  of  Kuvcra,  god  of  wealth, 
who  is  in  a  similar  manner  surrounded  by  his  attendants  the 
Yakshas.  This  mountain-residence  is,  as  we  have  already- 
seen,  the  special  heaven  of  Siva,  just  as  Vaikuntha  is  of  Vishnu. 
Thither  his  worshippers  hope  to  be  ultimately  transported, 
and  there  he  lives  with  his  wife  ParvatI  (also  called  Durga, 
Kali,  Uma,  RhavanT,  Satl,  etc.),  with  the  divine  hero  Vlra- 
bhadra,  who  is  a  manifestation  of  his  own  energy,  and  with 
his  two  sons  Skanda  and  Ganesa.  The  latter  control  Siva's 
troops,  leading  some  to  battle  against  evil  demons,  and  re- 
straining others  who  are  themselves  mischievous  imps  and 
would  turn  the  whole  world  into  a  scene  of  confusion  unless 
kept  in  check  ^.  It  is  probable  that  in  surrounding  the  god 
Rudra-Siva  with  armies  of  demons  and  impish  attendants, 
and  making  his  sons  lead  and  control  them,  Hindu  mytholo- 
gists  merely  gave  expression  to  an  idea  inveterate  in  the 
Indian  mind,  that  all  disease,  destruction,  and  dissolution  are 
the  result  of  demoniacal  agency. 

With  regard  to  the  bodily  form,  mode  of  life,  and  behaviour 
attributed  to  Siva  in  his  later  character  of  lord  of  Kailasa,  it 
is  not  surprising  that  these  should  to  some  extent  be  bor- 
rowed from  the  ancient  description  of  him  in  the  Satarudriya 
hymn  before  quoted.  But  many  new  and  supernatural  fea- 
tures symbolical  of  his  later  functions  and  actions  are  added. 

In  the  first  place,  in  regard  to  his  corporeal  aspect,  he  has 
sometimes  five  faces  (Pauc'anana)^  sometimes  one  face,  and 


*  In  the  temple  at  Madura  I  saw  a  representation  of  Siva  borne  on  one 
of  the  Ganas.  Some  of  his  more  personal  attendants  have  special  names, 
such  as  Nandin  (often  confounded  with  his  vehicle  the  bull,  see  p.  8l), 
Bhringin,  and  Tandu,  the  latter  being  the  original  teacher  of  dancing. 

-  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  troops  of  Siva  are  represented  as 
addicted  to  strong  drink  as  well  as  to  other  excesses,  and  in  this  respect 
their  master  Siva  sets  them  an  example  ;  see  pp.  84,  85. 

^  It  is  possible  that  the  five  faces  symbolize  the  five  schools  of  the 
Vedas  (Rig,  Yajur,  Sama,  Taittiriya,  and  Vajasaneyin),  or  perhaps  the 
five  Pathas  (Samhita,  Pada,  Krama,  Jata,  and  Ghana),  or  rather  perhaps 
the  five  Gayatrls.     No  one  in  India  could  give  me  any  good  explanation 


•/y 


So  Saivism. 

always  three  eyes,  which  are  thought  to  denote  his   insight 
into  past,  present,  and  future  time. 

The  third  eye  is  in  his  forehead,  and  a  moon's  crescent 
above  it  marks  the  measuring  of  time  by  months,  while  a 
serpent  round  his  neck  denotes  the  endless  cycle  of  recurring 
years,  and  a  second  necklace  of  skulls  with  numerous  other 
serpents  about  his  person^  symbolizes  the  eternal  revolution 
of  ages,  and  the  successive  dissolution  and  regeneration  of 
the  races  of  mankind.  His  body  is  generally  covered  with 
ashes,  and  his  hair  thickly  matted  together,  and  gathered 
above  his  forehead  into  a  coil,  so  as  to  project  like  a  horn. 
On  the  top  of  it  he  bears  the  Ganges,  the  rush  of  which 
he  intercepted  in  its  descent  from  Vishnu's  foot,  that  the 
earth  might  not  be  crushed  by  the  weight  of  the  falling 
stream.  His  complexion  is  sometimes  white ^,  from  the  re- 
flection of  the  snows  of  Kailasa,  sometimes  dark,  from  his 
identification  with  the  dark  destroyer  Time  (Kala).  His 
throat  is  blue,  from  the  stain  of  the  deadly  poison  which 
would  have  destroyed  the  world  had  not  Siva  in  compassion 


of  their  meaning.  I  noticed  that  many  images  of  Buddha  in  India  and 
Ceylon  had  five  rays  of  light  issuing  from  the  head,  or  a  five-headed 
serpent  expanded  over  it. 

'  Serpents,  as  we  have  seen,  are  associated  with  both  Siva  and 
Vishnu.  The  latter,  as  is  well  known,  sleeps  on  a  serpent,  and  I  have 
often  seen  Liiigas  in  the  South  with  a  canopy  formed  of  a  five-headed 
serpent.  Images  of  Krishna  and  of  Buddha  are  also  so  represented. 
Tlie  intcrchangeableness  of  Buddhism,  Saivism,  and  Vaishnavism  is 
everywhere  apparent. 

■''  There  is  a  legend  that  Siva  appeared  in  the  Kali  age,  for  the  good 
of  the  IJrahmans,  as  Sveta  '  the  white  one,'  and  that  he  had  four  dis- 
ciples, to  all  of  whom  the  epithet  Sveta  is  applied.  Possibly  the  attribu- 
tion of  a  while  complexion  to  Siva  may  be  due  to  the  fact  that  the 
Hrahmans  of  Cashmere,  who  are  almost  as  fair  as  Europeans,  were  the 
first  worshippers  of  Siva.  Then  as  his  cultus  passed  southwards  the  god 
naturally  received  a  complexion  more  in  keeping  with  that  of  his  wor- 
shippers. Or  it  may  be  that  white  and  black,  like  day  and  night,  sym- 
bolized the  close  connexion  and  succession  of  the  destroying  and 
regenerative  principles.  Siva's  wife  ParVatI  is  also  often  called  Gaurl, 
the  pale-coloured. 


Sak'isni.  8 1 

for  the  human  race  undertaken  to  drink  It  up,  on  Its  pro- 
duction at  the  churning  of  the  ocean.  He  rides  a  white 
bull  (called  Nandi),  images  of  which  are  often  placed  outside 
his  shrines  and  probably  typify  generative  energy.  He  is 
sometimes  represented  clothed  in  a  deer-skin,  sometimes  in 
the  skin  of  a  tiger  alleged  to  have  been  formerly  killed  by 
him  when  created  by  the  magical  arts  of  some  Rishis  who 
tried  to  destroy  the  god,  because  his  beauty  had  attracted 
the  amorous  glances  of  their  wives.  Sometimes,  again,  he 
appears  wearing  an  elephant's  skin  which  had  belonged  to 
a  demon  of  immense  power  named  Gaya,  whom  he  con- 
quered and  slew.  As  Siva  is  constantly  engaged  in  battle 
with  mighty  demons  (such  as  Pura,  Tripura,  Andhaka),  all 
of  whom  he  fought  and  slew,  he  is  armed  with  special 
weapons,  suited  to  his  warlike  needs ;  for  example,  he  carries 
a  trisula  or  three-pronged  trident  (also  called  Pinaka),  thought 
by  some  to  denote  his  combining  in  his  own  person  the  three 
attributes  of  Creator,  Destroyer,  and  Regenerator ;  a  bow 
called  Ajagava,  a  thunderbolt  (vajra),  an  axe,  and  a  non- 
descript weapon  called  Khatvanga,  consisting  of  a  kind  of 
staff  with  transverse  pieces  surmounted  by  a  skull.  He  also 
holds  in  his  hand  a  noose  (pasa)  for  binding  his  enemies^  and 
a  kind  of  rattle  or  drum,  shaped  like  an  hour-glass,  called 
Damaru,  which  he  uses  as  a  musical  instrument  to  keep  time 
while  dancing. 

It  is  clear  from  all  this  symbolism  that  the  god  Siva,  as 
depicted  in  the  later  Hindu  scriptures,  assumes  a  very  be- 
wildering and  confusing  variety  of  personalities  at  different 
times.  His  functions,  as  indicated  by  his  1008  names  (see 
p.  106),  are  innumerable  and  his  nature  all-comprehensive. 
Yet  an  attempt  may  be  made  to  disentangle  the  confusion  by 
pointing  out  that  there  are  really  five  chief  characters  of  the 
god  which  stand  out  prominently  from  his  general  portraiture 
and  are  capable  of  being  brought  out  into  definite  relief. 

I.  In  the  first  place,  he  is,  as  we  have  seen,  the  impersonation 

G 


82  Saivis77t. 

of  the  dissolving  and  disintegrating  powers  and  processes  oF 
nature.  These  ought  really  to  be  regarded  as  set  in  action 
by  a  beneficent  being  performing  a  necessary  operation,  but 
in  the  later  phases  of  Hinduism  the  idea  of  dissolution  is 
invested  with  terror.  Siva  himself  is  converted  into  a  fierce 
universal  destroyer  (Sarva-bhuta-hara),  who  annihilates  at  the 
end  of  every  great  age  (kalpa)  not  only  men  and  all  created 
things,  but  good  and  evil  demons,  and  even  Brahma,  Vishnu, 
and  all  the  inferior  gods.  He  is  then  called  Rudra,  Mahakala, 
Hara,  Anala  (Fire),  &c.  One  legend  makes  him  wear  the 
bones  and  skulls  of  the  gods  as  ornaments  and  garlands. 

Another  legend  describes  how  at  the  end  of  one  of  the 
early  ages  of  the  universe  he  burnt  up  the  gods  by  a  flash 
from  his  central  eye,  and  afterwards  rubbed  their  ashes  upon 
his  body ;  whence  the  use  of  ashes  is  considered  of  great 
importance  in  his  worship.  Another  legend  accounts  for  the 
use  of  Rudraksha  berries  in  the  rosaries  of  Siva  by  describing 
how  he  once  let  fall  some  tears  of  rage  which  became  con- 
verted into  these  seeds.  Their  connexion  with  Siva-worship 
is  probably  due  to  their  roughness  and  to  their  possessing  five 
divisions  corresponding  to  the  god's  five  faces. 

It  is  easy  to  see  how  it  came  to  pass  that  the  god  in  this 
later  character  is  believed  to  delight  in  destruction  for  its 
own  sake.  He  is  called  Smasana-vasin,  'dweller  in  burial- 
places.'  Cemeteries  and  burning-grounds  are  his  favourite 
haunts ;  imps  and  demons  (bhutas  and  pisacas)  are  his  ready 
servants  ;  ferocity  and  irascibility  on  the  slightest  provocation 
constitute  his  normal  condition  of  mind.  For  example,  on 
one  occasion,  when  the  sage  Daksha  omitted  to  invite  him 
and  his  wife  SatI  to  a  great  sacrifice  at  which  all  the  gods 
were  guests,  he  without  the  slightest  hesitation  decapitated 
the  unfortunate  sage  and  replaced  his  head  by  that  of  a  ram. 
So  again  a  sculpture  in  the  caves  of  Elephanta  represents  him 
with  eight  arms  in  the  act  of  immolating  a  child.  In  this 
character  he  is  often  called  Bhairava,  the  terrible  one,  Vira- 


i 


Sah'ism.  83 

bhadra  being  sometimes  identified  with  him.  But  it  should 
be  noted  that  in  the  present  day  all  these  terrible  attributes 
are  generally  transferred  from  the  male  deity  to  his  feminine 
counterpart  in  the  forms  of  Durga  and  Kali. 

II.  In  the  second  place,  Siva  is  the  impersonation  of  the 
eternal  reproductive  power  of  Nature,  perpetually  reintegrating 
after  disintegration  (whence  his  name  Bhuta-bhavana).  It  is 
especially  in  this  personality  that  he  is  called  '  the  eternally 
blessed  one,'  'the  causer  of  blessings'  (Siva,  Sada-Siva^  Sari- 
kara,  and  Sambhu),  and  it  is  in  this  character  that  he  is  now 
generally  worshipped  all  over  India  under  the  well-known  and 
often  misunderstood  symbol  of  the  Liiiga^  (see  note  to  p.  68). 

III.  In  the  third  place,  Siva  is  the  great  typical  ascetic  and 
self-mortificr  (Yogi,  Tapasvl),  who  has  attained  the  highest 
perfection  in  meditation  and  austerity  (whence  his  names 
Mahatapah,  MahayogT).  In  this  character  he  appears  quite 
naked  (Dig-ambara),  with  only  one  face,  like  an  ordinary  human 
being,  with  ash-besmeared  body  and  matted  hair  (whence 
his  name  Dhurjati),  sitting  in  profound  meditation  under  an 
Asvattha  tree  (  =  Pippala  or  Pipal),  and  often,  like  the  con- 
templative Buddha,  under  a  canopy  formed  by  a  serpent's 
hcad^.  There  he  is  supposed  to  remain  passionless,  motion- 
less, immovable,  as  the  trunk  of  a  tree  (sthanu),  and  perhaps 
rooted  to  the  same  spot  for  millions  of  years. 

Another  legend  describes  how  on  one  occasion  Siva,  when 
engaged  in  a  long  course  of  asceticism,  scorched  the  god  of 
love  (Kama-deva)  to  ashes  by  a  flash  of  rage  from  his  central 
eye,  because  that  deity  attempted  to  inflame  him  with  passion 
for  his  consort  Parvatl. 

'  I  have  already  pointed  out  that  although  the  Liiiga  is  regarded  as 
highly  objectionable  in  the  eyes  of  Europeans  and  is  denounced  by 
missionaries  as  'an  abominable  symbol,'  it  is  never  by  Saivas  connected 
with  the  passion  of  love.  See  note,  p.  68.  This  passion  belongs  to 
Vaishnavism  rather  than  to  Saivism. 

^  The  serpent  is  often  five-headed,  which  appears  to  have  some  con- 
nection with  Siva's  five  faces.     Compare  note  3,  p.  79. 

G  2 


g^  ^aivism. 

It  is  in  this  character  that  he  teaches  men  by  his  own 
example  the  power  to  be  acquired  by  mortification  of  the 
body,  suppression  of  the  passions,  and  abstract  contempla- 
tion, as  leading  to  the  loftiest  spiritual  knowledge  and  ulti- 
mately effecting  union  with  himself  in  Kailasa. 

IV.  In  the  fourth  place,  the  god  Siva  is  a  contemplative 
philosopher  and  learned  sage,  the  revealer  of  Grammar  to  the 
greatest  of  Indian  grammarians,  Panini^  And  in  this  cha- 
racter he  is  represented  as  a  Brahman  wearing  the  Brahmani- 
cal  thready  well-skilled  in  the  Veda,  and  especially  conversant 
with  the  Krama  arrangement  of  the  text.  So  much  so  that 
a  saying  is  current  among  the  Pandits  :  '  No  one,  not  as  skilled 
as  Siva,  can  repeat  the  Krama'  (nasivah  Krama-pathakah). 
Among  his  names,  too,  are  Mantra-vid,  Brahma-vid,  Brahma- 
I'ari,  and  Panditah.  This,  in  fact,  is  one  of  many  proofs  that 
at  least  one  form  of  Saivism  is  as  much  the  peculiar  system 
of  Brahmans,  learned  men,  and  the  higher  classes  of  the 
Hindu  community,  as  Vaishnavism  is  of  men  of  the  world, 
kings,  heroes,  and  the  lower  orders^  In  fact,  a  verse  from 
the  ancient  version  of  Manu  is  often  quoted: — 'Siva  is  the 
god  of  the  Brahmans,  Krishna  (Vishnu)  of  the  Kshatriyas, 
Brahma  of  the  Vaisyas,  and  Ganesa  of  Sudras.' 

V.  In  the  fifth  place,  Siva  is  exactly  the  opposite  of  an 
ascetic  and  philosopher.  He  is  a  wild  and  jovial  moun- 
taineer (Kirata),  addicted  to  hunting  and  wine-drinking,  fond 
of  dancing  (Nritya-priyah,  also  called  -Natesvara,  '  lord  of 
dancing'),  often  dancing  with  his  wife   the  Tandava   dance, 


*  The  first  fourteen  sutras  of  Panini  are  called  the  Siva-sfitras,  and 
the  whole  grammar  is  believed  to  be  a  revelation  from  Siva,  whence  one 
of  Siva's  names  is  Vyakaranottarah.  The  miracle  is  made  more  remark- 
able by  representing  the  reputed  author  Paiiini  as  naturally  stupid. 

■"'  I  noticed  that  a  carving  of  Siva  in  the  caves  of  Ellora  represents 
him  with  the  Brahmanical  thread.  His  son  Ganesa  also  wears  this 
thread. 

'  There  is  another  common  saying,  Niivishnuh  piithivl-patih,  '  No  one 
except  he  resemble  Vishnu  ought  to  be  a  king.' 


Saivism.  85 

and  surrounded  by  dwarfish,  buffoon-like  troops  (gana)  of 
attendants,  who,  hke  their  master,  are  fond  of  good  Hving 
and  occasionally  inebriated  by  intoxicating  liquors.  The 
worshippers  of  Siva  in  this  character  generally  belong  to  the 
sect  called  Sclktas,  who  are  devoted  to  the  wife  of  the  god, 
and  are  given  to  self-indulgence  and  sensual  gratification. 
Their  religious  books  are  called  Tantras,  and  their  peculiar 
tenets  will  be  explained  under  the  head  of  Saktism. 

A  still  more  remarkable  aspect  of  the  god  is  as  a  being 
half-male,  half-female  (Ardha-narl)  ^  This  really  belongs 
to  the  second  of  the  characters  just  described.  It  sym- 
bolizes both  the  duality  and  unity  of  the  generative  act  and 
the  production  of  the  universe  from  the  union  of  two  eternal 
principles  (Prakriti  and  Purusha,  Maya  and  Atman),  accord- 
ing to  the  Sahkhya  and  Vedanta  systems  of  philosophy. 

Further,  it  should  be  noted  that,  according  to  some  Puranas, 
there  are  eight  principal  personal  manifestations  of  Siva^  called 
Rudra,  Bhairava  (or  Bhima),  Ugra,  Isvara  (or  Isana  or  Isa), 
Mahadeva  (or  Mahesvara),  Pasupati,  Sarva,  and  Bhava. 

Again,  he  is  specially  manifested  in  eight  material  forms 
(Tanus)— Fire,  Water,  Earth,  Air,  Ether  (which  are  the  five 
elements,  represented  by  his  five  faces),  the  Sun,  Moon,  and 
the  sacrificing  Brahman.     By  these  he  upholds  the  world. 

In  Southern  India  Siva  is  celebrated  as  the  worker  of  64 
special  miracles.  He  raised  the  dead,  healed  the  blind,  deaf, 
lame,  etc.,  and  gave  similar  powers  to  6'i,  of  his  saints. 

It  might  have  been  expected  that  so  great  a  variety  of  the 
god  Siva's  characters  and  aspects  would  have  led  to  a  cor- 
responding variety  in  the  sects  which  are  addicted  to  his 
exclusive  worship.     We  find,  however,  that  Saivism  has  not, 


^  In  the  caves  of  Elephanta  I  saw  a  fine  carvinj;  of  Siva  and  Parvati 
thus  united  in  one  body.  The  female  side  forms  the  left  side  of  the  god, 
and  is  represented  holding  a  looking-glass.  It  is  noticeable  that  the 
wife  is  always  on  the  left  side,  except  as  a  bride  at  the  nuptial  ceremony, 
when  she  is  placed  on  the  right. 


86  Saivisrn.     Saiva  Sects. 

like  Vaishnavism,  resolved  itself  into  many  separate  organized 
societies  under  great  religious  leaders.  It  would  in  truth  be 
difficult  to  name  any  conspicuous  apostle  and  teacher  of  pure 
Saivism  (certainly  not  Basaba,  p.  88),  like  the  celebrated  Vaish- 
nava  teachers  Ramanuja,  Madhva,  (^aitanya,  and  Vallabha. 
For  we  have  already  seen  that  the  great  Sahkara,  though 
held  by  some  to  have  Saiva  proclivities,  abstained  from  incul- 
cating devotion  to  any  one  god  more  than  to  another. 

Unquestionably  all  Hindus,  even  the  strictest  Vaishnavas, 
are  ready  to  pay  homage  to  Siva  in  his  first  and  second 
characters  of  Dissolver  and  Regenerator.  It  is  clear,  too, 
that  in  the  days  of  Saiikara  several  sects  of  Saivas  existed 
and  became  the  object  of  his  controversial  onslaughts.  In 
the  Sankara-vijaya  six  are  named  :  to  wit,  i.  the  Saivas,  par 
excellence,  who  had  the  Linga  branded  on  both  arms  ;  3.  the 
Raudras,  who  had  the  trident  branded  on  the  forehead  ; 
3.  the  Ugras,  who  had  the  Damaru  (see  p.  81)  branded  on 
the  two  arms  ;  4.  the  Bhattas,  who  had  the  Linga  on  the 
forehead  ;  5.  the  Jarigamas^  who  bore  the  trident  on  the  head 
and  carried  a  Liiiga  made  of  stone  on  their  persons;  6.  the 
Pasupatas,  who  had  the  latter  symbol  branded  on  the  fore- 
head, arms,  breast,  and  navel. 

These  sects  are  described  in  the  Saiikara-vijaya  as  hostile 
to  the  doctrine  of  Non-duality  (Advaita-drohinah).  Their 
practice  of  branding  is  denounced  by  Sahkara  on  the  ground 
that  various  gods  are  present  in  the  limbs  of  the  human  body\ 
who  are  driven  away  by  the  burning  (tapana)  of  the  skin. 

Of  the  six  sects  named  only  the  two  last  remain  to  the 
present  day,  and  both  these  have  altered  not  a  few  of  their 
tenets  and  practices.  In  modern  times  Saiva  sectarians  are 
generally  followers  of  Siva  in  his  third  character  of  an 
ascetic.  They  profess  to  practise,  like  their  god,  severe  aus- 
terities and  bodily  mortifications.     Numbers  of  them  may  be 

*  May  we  not  compare  the  Christian  idea  of  the  sanctity  of  the  body 
as  the  temple  of  the  Holy  Ghost  ? 


Saivism.     Saiva  Sects.  87 

seen  at  sacred  places  of  pilgrimage,  where  they  appear  as 
reh'gious  mendicants. 

Those  who  claim  to  be  SannyasTs  are  the  most  orthodox 
sect.  Indeed  all  Brahmans  towards  the  close  of  their  lives 
ought  to  abandon  worldly  ties  and  become  SannyasTs.  But 
the  ordinary  Saiva  SannyasTs  are  by  no  means  of  so  respect- 
able a  type.  They  are  often  confounded  with  other  orders  of 
mendicant  ascetics  and  devotees  called  VairagTs  (usually  held 
to  be  Vaishnavas),  Gosains  and  YogTs^  (corrupted  into  JogT) ; 
the  latter  being  a  general  name  for  all  who  seek  by  their 
austerities  to  achieve  complete  union  with  the  deity. 

The  theory  is  that  a  Hindu  who  aims  at  perfection  ought  to 
go  through  six  successive  courses  of  penance  and  austerity  of 
twelve  years  each,  rising  by  degrees  up  to  the  highest  order  of 
all — the  Parama-hansa,  who  is  supposed  to  be  wholly  absorbed 
in  meditating  on  Brahman,  and  to  do  nothing  else  whatever. 

Then  there  is  an  order  of  Saiva  ascetics  called  Dandin, 
or  staff-bearers,  ten  divisions  of  whom — called  Dasa-namT 
Dandins,  said  to  carry  ten  different  forms  of  staff — are  alleged 
to  have  been  founded  by  Sahkaracarya. 

There  are  also  the  Aghora-panthTs  (panthT  =  Sanskrit 
pathin),  who  propitiate  Siva  by  their  revolting  diet  (seep.  94); 
the  Urdhva-brdius,  who  extend  one  or  both  arms  over  the  head 
and  hold  them  in  that  position  for  years^;  the  Akasa-mukhins, 


^  They  are  sometimes  called  Sadhus,  and  often  improperly  termed 
Fakirs,  a  name  which  ought  to  be  restricted  to  Muhammadan  mendicants. 
Bhagat  (probably  for  Bhakta)  is  sometimes  used  for  Vaishnava  devotees. 
Mahant  is  applied  to  a  leader  of  one  of  these  sects,  or  to  the  head  of 
a  monastery. 

^  This  kind  of  devotee  is  not  so  commonly  seen  as  in  former  days. 
During  the  whole  course  of  my  travels  I  only  saw  two  examples,  one  at 
Gaya.  and  the  other  at  Benares.  The  arm  of  the  former  was  quite 
withered,  and  his  fist  was  so  tightly  clenched  that  the  nails  were  growing 
through  the  back  of  his  hand.  The  latter  looked  like  a  piece  of  sculp- 
ture, sitting  in  a  niche  of  the  Anna-purna  temple,  perfectly  motionless 
and  impassive,  with  naked  body  smeared  all  over  with  white  ashes, 
matted  hair,  and  the  forefinger  of  the  upraised  hand  pointing  to  the 


88  Saivism.     Saiva  Sects. 

who  keep  their  necks  bent  back  looking  up  at  the  sky;  the 
Kripfilikas,  who  use  a  dead  man's  skull  for  a  drinking-cup^. 

Most  of  these  Saiva  ascetics  are  disreputable  in  character 
and  decidedly  dirty  in  their  habits.  With  Christians,  clean- 
liness is  said  to  be  next  to  godliness,  but  with  Hindus,  who 
in  their  general  habits  are  quite  as  cleanly  as  Europeans,  filth 
appears  to  be  regarded  as  a  necessary  accompaniment  and 
evidence  of  particular  forms  of  sanctity^. 

We  may  also  note  that  a  sect  of  Saivas  exists  in  the  South 
of  India — mostly  in  the  Mysore  and  Kanarese  country — who 
were  formed  into  a  religious  community  about  the  eleventh 
or  twelfth  century  by  a  leader  named  Basaba  (for  Sanskrit 
Vrishabha),  and  are  called  Lihgavats  (popularly  Lingaits), 
because  they  wear  the  Linga  in  a  silver  or  metallic  casket 
suspended  round  their  necks  with  a  cord  like  a  necklace. 
They  are  usually  identified  with  the  Jahgamas  of  Sankara's 
day,  described  as  utterly  unorthodox  and  despicable. 

In  fact,  this  sect  is  opposed  to  all  the  orthodox  practices  and 
religious  usages  of  the  Hindus,  such  as  caste-distinctions^, 
the  authority  of  the  Brahmans,  the  inspiration  of  the  Veda, 
and  Brahmanical  sacrifices ;  and  they  bury  instead  of  burning 
their  dead. 

With  regard  to  Saiva  philosophical  doctrines  it  should  be 
observed  that,  like  those  of  the  Vaishnava  sects,  they  deviate 
more  or  less  from  the  orthodox  Vedanta  doctrine  of  the 
identity  of  the   Supreme  and  human  spirit,  the  amount  of 

heaven  to  which  in  imagination  he  seemed  to  be  already  transporting 
himself. 

'  This  order  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by  Sankara  ;  compare  p.  59. 

"^  Ikit  only  in  the  case  of  ascetics.  As  a  general  rule  Hinduism  incul- 
cates a  strict  regard  for  cleanliness.  The  late  Lord  Beaconsfield  was 
right  when  he  said  that  Moses,  Muhammad,  and  Manu  all  make  clean- 
liness a  religious  duty. 

'  The  Lingaits  of  the  present  day  are  said  to  be  returning  to  caste- 
rules,  and  only  to  disregard  caste  on  certain  days  of  the  week.  I  have 
heard  some  declare  that  they  belong  to  a  fifth  caste  (pafidama),  which  is 
superior  to  the  four  castes  of  the  Brahmanical  system. 


Saivism.     Saiva  Sccis.  89 

deviation  depending  of  course  on  the  intensity  of  the  person- 
ality attributed  to  Siva. 

A  particular  system,  which  may  be  called  the  Saiva-darsana 
par  excellence,  came  into  vogue  in  India  about  the  tenth  or 
eleventh  century.  It  was  handed  down  in  twenty-eight  books, 
called  Agamas,  almost  all  of  which  are  lost.  This  philosophy 
is  followed  by  a  sect  in  the  South  of  India,  and  is  wholly 
opposed  to  the  non-duality  of  the  Vedanta.  Its  founder,  like 
theVaishnava  teacher  Ramanuja (seep.  1 19),  taught  that  three 
entities  have  a  separate  existence,  i.  The  Lord  (Siva)  called 
Pasupati,  '  lord  of  the  soul '  (Pasu).  2.  The  Soul  called  Pasu, 
'an  animal.'  3.  Matter  called  Pasa,  'a  fetter.'  The  soul 
which  belongs  to  the  Lord  as  to  a  master,  is  bound  by  matter 
as  a  beast  (pasu)  is  by  a  fetter ;  and  of  course  the  great  aim 
of  the  Saiva  philosophy  is  to  set  it  free  and  restore  it  to  its 
rightful  owner.  These  doctrines  have  evidently  much  in  com- 
mon wath  the  theistic  Sahkhya. 

Another  Saiva  sect,  called  Pasupatas,  already  noticed  (p.  59), 
seem  to  be  connected  with  the  preceding  much  as  the  Madhva 
is  with  the  Ramanuja  sect ;  for  instead  of  affirming  the  sepa- 
rate existence  of  three  entities  they  are  content  to  distinguish 
between  two — Pati  and  Pasu.  The  former  (Pati)  is  the  Lord 
(Isvara),  the  cause  and  creator  (karta)  of  all  things,  the  latter 
is  the  effect  (karya)  or  that  which  is  created  and  wholly 
b  dependent  on  the  cause.  The  Pasupatas  try  to  induce  ecstatic 
union  with  their  lord  by  singing,  dancing,  and  gesticulations. 

I  propose  deferring  to  a  subsequent  chapter  a  description 
of  the  principal  Saiva  temples  visited  by  me.  Perhaps,  how- 
ever, a  brief  account  of  the  ceremonies  I  saw  performed  at 
a  Lihga  shrine  near  Bombay  may  fitly  be  introduced  here. 

It  has  been  already  stated  that  on  ordinary  occasions  the 
form  of  worship  consists  in  simply  pouring  water  over  the 
Lihga  and  offering  Bilva  leaves  (see  p.  68).  On  great  festi- 
vals a  more  complicated  ceremonial  is  observed.  In  the  year 
1877  I  visited  the   temple  dedicated  to  Siva  at  Walkesvar, 


90  Saivism.     Saiva  Ceremonies. 

near  Bombay,  on  the  morning  after  the  Siva-rat  (rat  =  ratn)  or 
fast  kept  in  honour  of  the  god.  The  Linga  shrine  there  is 
not  large,  and  the  symbol  is  not  too  sacred  to  be  exposed 
to  observation.  I  was  permitted,  in  fact,  to  stand  close  to 
the  entrance  of  the  small  sanctuary  and  to  note  down  all  I 
witnessed.  In  the  centre  of  the  shrine  was  the  Lihga,  a  plain 
upright  stone,  which  on  the  occasion  of  the  Siva-rat  cere- 
mony was  covered  with  a  pile  of  Bilva  (BlP)  leaves.  Near 
it  there  were  several  high  candlesticks  with  lights  kept  con- 
tinually burning.  Behind,  in  a  niche,  was  the  image  of  Siva's 
wife  Parvatl,  which  on  the  occasion  of  my  visit  was  loaded 
with  sacred  flowers  resembling  marigolds.  In  front,  looking 
into  the  sanctuary,  was  the  image  of  a  bull  made  of  brass ; 
the  bull  being  Siva's  vehicle,  and,  like  the  Liiiga,  symbolical 
of  reproductive  energy.  Above  the  upright  stone  was  hang- 
ing a  large  vase  full  of  water.  It  had  a  perforation  in  its 
lowest  part  through  which  the  liquid  trickled  out,  drop  by 
drop,  falling  at  regular  intervals  on  the  symbol  under- 
neath. When  I  asked  a  bystander  the  meaning  of  this  con- 
stant dripping,  he  replied  with  much  naivete,  '  Holy  water 
from  the  Ganges  is  falling  on  the  head  of  God.'  No  further 
explanation  appeared  to  him  to  be  needed.  In  front  of  the 
porch  before  the  door  of  the  sanctuary  were  three  long  rows 
of  bells,  and  above  them  a  line  of  svastikas  or  sacred  crosses^ 
interspersed  with  trees  and  figures  of  elephants,  and  over  all 
the  hood  of  a  cobra  snake.  Above  the  door  itself  was  the 
image  of  Siva's  son  Ganesa. 

Outside  the  shrine,  on  the  morning  of  my  visit,  stood  a  row 
of  male  worshippers  (three  or  four  women  standing  near),  and 
in  front  of  them  a  priest,  holding  a  tray  of  Bilva  leaves,  sup- 


'  The  Bilva,  corrupted  into  Bll,  is  the  ^gle  Marmelos,  a  very  astrin- 
gent plant. 

'•*  The  Svastika  mark  is  an  auspicious  symbol  with  four  arms  in  the 
form  of  a  Greek  cross,  the  termination  of  each  arm  being  bent  round  in 
the  direction  of  the  sun.     See  note  i,  p.  104. 


Saivism.     Saiva   Ccrcniomes.  91 

posed  to  possess  cooling  properties  grateful  to  the  god  Siva. 
Some  of  these  the  priest  placed  in  the  hands  of  each  wor- 
shipper, at  the  same  time  muttering  prayers  and  texts.  Next 
he  dipped  his  finger  in  a  vase  of  holy  water  and  touched  the 
two  eyes  and  breasts  of  each.  To  me,  a  spectator,  it  seemed 
exactly  as  if  he  were  making  the  sign  of  a  cross  on  their 
bodies.  Then  each  of  the  worshippers  heaped  the  leaves 
received  from  the  priest  on  the  head  of  the  bull.  I  noticed 
that  some  also  besprinkled  it  with  saffron  (kurikuma)  powder, 
which  they  purchased  from  a  man  standing  near. 

This  preliminary  ceremony  ended,  all  entered  the  shrine, 
and  after  ringing  the  bells  at  the  entrance,  prostrated  them- 
selves before  the  central  symbol,  touching  the  ground  with 
their  foreheads.  Their  next  act  was  to  pile  more  Bilva 
leaves  on  the  stone  symbol.  Then  taking  small  lotas  of  holy 
water,  they  poured  abundance  of  the  sacred  liquid  over  both 
leaves  and  symbol.  All  the  worshippers  then  seated  them- 
selves in  a  circle  round  the  central  stone  while  the  priest 
lighted  lamps  and  waved  them  before  it.  Every  now  and 
then  a  fresh  worshipper  entered  the  shrine,  ringing  one  of  the 
bells  at  the  door  before  entering.  Moreover,  in  the  shrine 
there  was  a  constant  ringing  of  small  portable  bells  and  clap- 
ping of  hands,  as  if  to  draw  the  attention  of  the  deity  wor- 
shipped to  the  prayers  muttered  by  his  worshippers,  while  a 
number  of  priests  in  another  part  of  the  sanctuary  intoned 
texts  and  chanted  hymns  in  chants  very  like  Gregorian. 

Outside  the  shrine,  on  one  side,  sat  a  nearly  naked  ascetic, 
with  long  matted  hair  coiled  round  and  round  into  a  high 
peak,  his  face  and  body  covered  with  white  ashes.  On  the 
other  side  sat  a  Brahman  with  a  little  wooden  table  before 
him,  on  which  was  a  lota  of  holy  water,  several  implements 
of  worship,  and  a  copy  of  one  of  the  Puranas  or  ancient 
sacred  scriptures.  He  had  three  white  streaks  on  his  fore- 
head and  the  same  on  his  shoulders  to  denote  his  devotion 
to  Siva.     Hanging  over  his  left  shoulder  and  under  his  right 


c)2  Sahism.     Saiva  Ceremonies. 

arm  was  the  sacred  cord  of  three  coils  of  cotton — the  mark 
of  his  second  birth — and  his  right  hand  was  inserted  in  a 
Gomukhl  or  bag.  I  asked  what  he  was  doing.  '  He  is 
counting  the  beads  of  his  rosary,'  said  a  bystander,  '  and  each 
time  he  tells  a  bead  he  repeats  one  of  the  1008  names  of  the 
god  Siva,  but  this  operation  must  on  no  account  be  seen,  and 
so  the  hand  and  rosary  are  concealed  in  the  bag.' 

No  doubt  he  was  muttering  to  himself,  but  in  so  low  a  tone 
that  no  sound  was  audible  ;  and  his  eyes  were  intently  fixed,  as 
if  in  profound  meditation,  which  neither  my  presence  nor  any- 
thing passing  around  appeared  to  distract  for  a  single  instant. 

Another  devotee  was  also  seated  cross-legged  outside  the 
entrance  to  the  shrine,  whose  intoning  of  one  of  the  Siva- 
puranas  and  muttering  of  prayers  ( japa)  was  audible  to  every 
one.  He  had  before  him  a  low  wooden  table,  on  which  was 
a  Rudraksha  rosary  (see  p.  82),  a  Liiiga-purana,  a  little 
metal  saucer  of  rice,  a  small  lota  of  holy  water  on  a  three- 
legged  stand,  a  little  spoon,  a  heap  of  Bilva  leaves,  a  sacred 
conch-shell  (saiikha) — sometimes  blown  like  a  horn  or  used  as 
a  Saiva  symbol,  though  usually  appropriated  to  Vishnu — 
three  green  mangoes,  a  small  bell,  a  leaf  full  of  dates,  and  a 
little  bag  containing  the  Vibhuti  or  white  ashes  for  marking 
his  forehead  with  the  three  Saiva  streaks.  While  I  was 
taking  this  catalogue  he  took  no  notice  of  my  proceedings, 
but  continued  muttering  his  prayers  with  intense  earnestness 
as  if  quite  abstracted  from  the  world  around  him. 

Though  greatly  interested  in  all  I  was  allowed  to  witness, 
I  came  away  sick  at  heart.  No  one  could  be  present  at  such 
a  scene  without  feeling  depressed  by  the  thought  that,  not- 
withstanding all  our  efforts  for  the  extension  of  education 
and  the  diffusion  of  knowledge,  we  have  as  yet  done  little  to 
loosen  the  iron  grip  of  idolatry  and  superstition  on  the  masses 
of  the  people.  Indeed  it  would  be  easy  to  show  that  other 
forms  of  Siva-worship  are  characterized  by  superstitious  ob- 
servances of  a  still  lower  type.     Turn  we,  for  example,  to  the 


Sahis??i.     Saiva  Ceremonies,  93 

ceremonies  performed  at  the  great  Saiva  temple  of  Bhu- 
vancsvara  in  Orissa.  These  are  so  unique  that  I  may  be 
pardoned  for  giving  some  idea  of  them  before  conckiding 
this  chapter.  My  authority  is  Dr.  Rajendralala  Mitra,  who 
has  described  the  ceremonial  in  the  second  volume  of  his 
work  on  Orissa.  Siva  is  worshipped  at  that  particular  locality 
under  the  form  of  a  large  uncarved  block  or  slab  of  granite, 
about  eight  feet  long,  partly  buried  in  the  ground,  partly 
apparent  above  the  soil  to  the  height  of  about  eight  inches. 
The  block  is  believed  to  be  a  Liiiga  of  the  Svayambhu  class 
(see  p.  69),  and  is  surrounded  by  a  rim,  supposed,  of  course, 
to  represent  the  female  organ  (Yoni).  The  daily  worship  con- 
sists of  no  less  than  twenty-two  ceremonial  acts. 

(i)  At  the  first  appearance  of  dawn  bells  are  rung  to  rouse 
the  deity  from  his  slumbers  ;  (2)  a  lamp  with  many  wicks  is 
waved  in  front  of  the  stone  ;  (3)  the  god's  teeth  are  cleaned 
by  pouring  water  and  rubbing  a  stick  about  a  foot  long 
on  the  stone  ;  (4)  the  deity  is  washed  and  bathed  by  empty- 
ing several  pitchers  of  water  on  the  stone  ;  (5)  the  god  is 
dressed  by  putting  clothes  on  the  stone  ;  (6)  the  first  break- 
fast is  offered,  consisting  of  grain,  sweetmeats,  curd,  and 
cocoanuts  ;  (7)  the  god  has  his  principal  breakfast,  when 
cakes  and  more  substantial  viands  are  served  ;  (8)  a  kind  of 
little  lunch  is  offered  ;  (9)  the  god  has  his  regular  lunch  ; 
(10)  the  mid-day  dinner  is  served,  consisting  of  curry,  rice, 
pastr)'-,  cakes,  cream,  etc.,  while  a  priest  waves  a  many- 
flamed  lamp  and  burns  incense  before  the  stone  ;  (11)  strains 
of  noisy  discordant  music  rouse  the  deity  from  his  afternoon 
sleep  at  4  P.Tkl.,  the  sanctuary  having  been  closed  for  the  pre- 
ceding four  hours;  (12)  sweetmeats  are  offered;  (13)  the 
afternoon  bath  is  administered  ;  (14)  the  god  is  dressed  as 
in  the  morning;  (15)  another  meal  is  served;  (16)  another 
bath  is  administered  ;  (17)  the  full-dress  ceremony  takes 
place,  when  fine  costly  vestments,  yellow  flowers,  and  per- 
fumery are   placed    on   the  stone;    (18)   another  offering  of 


94  Saivism.     Saiva  Ceremonies. 

food  follows;  (19)  after  an  hour's  interval  the  regular  supper 
is  served  ;  (20)  five  masks^  and  a  Damaru  are  brought  in  and 
oblations  made  to  them  ;  (21)  waving  of  lights  (arti ;  Sanskrit, 
arati)  is  performed  before  bedtime  ;  (22)  a  bedstead  is  brought 
into  the  sanctuary  and  the  god  composed  to  sleep. 

Of  course  the  offerings  are  ultimately  eaten  by  the  priests 
and  attendants,  the  superfluity  being  sold. 

This  brief  summary  of  a  tedious  series  of  ceremonies  must 
conclude  our  account  of  Saivism.  The  Bhuvanesvara  cere- 
monial seems  to  be  an  imitation  of  the  forms  of  worship 
offered  to  the  images  of  Krishna.  The  usual  Saiva  services, 
though  certainly  marked  by  degrading  superstitious  observ- 
ances, have  the  merit  of  being  exceedingly  simple. 

It  is  satisfactory  to  find  that  many  enlightened  Brahmans 
in  the  present  day  are  striving  by  their  writings  to  expose 
the  absurdities  of  idol-offerings.  In  a  GujaratI  work  called 
Agama-prakasa  (p.  162-)  the  following  sentiment  occurs: 
'  When  one  remembers  the  greatness  of  the  perfect  God  who 
is  Existence,  Knowledge,  and  Bliss,  how  can  any  idea  be 
formed  of  offering  food  and  oblations  to  such  a  Being  ? ' 

The  author  of  the  same  work  in  expressing  his  disgust  at 
the  practices  of  the  Aghora-panthis  (mentioned  at  p.  87  of 
this  chapter)  states  that  their  number  is  happily  decreasing^. 
Yet  many  are  still  to  be  found  who  believe  they  are  pro- 
pitiating Siva  not  by  worship,  but  by  feeding  on  filth  and 
animal  excreta  of  all  kinds.  He  asserts  that  occasional 
instances  occur  of  fanatical  members  of  the  sect  eating  corpses 
stolen  from  Muhammadan  burial-grounds  ;  and  that  the  head 
of  the  Aghoris  near  Siddhapur  subsists  on  scorpions,  lizards,  and 
loathsome  insects  left  to  putrefy  in  a  dead-man's  skull  (p.  7). 

'  Intended,  I  presume,  to  represent  Siva's  five  faces  (p.  79),  which  may 
possibly  be  connected  with  the  five  elements ;  as  to  the  Damaru,  see  p.  81. 

*  Given  to  me  by  Rao  Bahadur  Gopal  Hari  Deshmukh  at  Ahmedabad 
and  written  by  himself. 

^  In  the  whole  course  of  my  travels  I  only  met  with  one  Aghorl — a 
disgusting  creature  who  accosted  me  at  Benares. 


CHAPTER  V. 


Vaishnavism.     General  Characteristics.     Four  Sects. 

The  preceding  chapters  of  this  work  will,  I  trust,  have 
made  it  clear  that,  in  respect  of  religious  belief,  the  Hindus 
of  the  present  day  may  be  broadly  divided  into  three  principal 
classes^,  namely,  (i)  Smartas,  (2)  Saivas,  (3)  Vaishnavas. 

The  first  class  believe  that  man's  spirit  is  identical  with 
the  one  infinite  Spirit  (Atma,  Brahma-)  which  is  the  sub- 
stratum of  the  Universe  and  only  cognizable  through  internal 
meditation  and  self-communion.  They  regard  that  Spirit  as 
the  highest  object  of  all  religious  knowledge  and  aspiration. 
They  are  also  believers  in  the  Tri-murti ;  that  is,  in  the  three 
personal  gods,  Brahma,  Vishnu,  and  Siva — with  their  train  of 

^  These,  of  course,  are  capable  of  subdivision. 

^  It  is  worthy  of  note  that  Atman  (which  is  the  earHer  word  for  the 
one  Spirit  of  the  Universe)  is  mascuHne,  while  Brahman,  the  later  word, 
is  neuter.  The  etymology  of  Atman  is  doubtful.  Some  derive  it  from 
at,  to  move  ;  others  from  ah,  connected  with  aham,  I ;  others  from  vd^ 
to  blow  as  the  wind  ;  and  others  (as  we  have  seen)  from  an,  to  breathe 
(compare  p.  20).  No  doubt  atman  was  originally  the  breath  of  life — the 
breath  that  animates  the  Universe  and  man's  living  soul — the  power  in 
which  and  by  which  man  lives,  and  moves,  and  has  his  being.  In  the 
well-known  hymn  Rig-veda  I.  115.  i,  the  Sun  (Suryal.i) — interpreted  by 
advanced  Pandits  to  mean  the  Supreme  Being— is  called  the  Soul  (Atman) 
of  the  Universe  (that  is,  of  all  that  moves  and  is  immovable) ;  and  in  the 
Taittirlya  Aranyaka,  VIII.  i,  the  ethereal  element  called  Akasa  (supposed 
to  fill  and  pervade  the  Universe  and  to  be  the  vehicle  of  life)  is  said  to 
be  produced  from  Atman.  The  name  Brahman,  which  is  the  most  usual 
name  for  the  one  Spirit  of  the  Universe  in  later  writings,  was  at  first 
connected  with  the  spiritual  power  inherent  in  the  Vedic  hymns  and 
prayers.  The  Veda  itself  is  often  called  Brahma,  and  described  as  the 
breath  (uddhvasita)  of  the  Supreme. 


g6  P^'aishiiavisni.     General  Characteristics. 

subordinate  deities — but  only  as  coequal  manifestations  of 
the  one  eternal  impersonal  Spirit,  and  as  destined  ultimately 
to  be  reabsorbed  into  that  Spirit  and  so  disappear.  This,  I 
repeat,  is  the  only  orthodox  form  of  Brahmanical  religious 
thought,  and  those  who  follow  it  claim  Sahkara  (see  p.  ^$) 
as  their  chief  leader  and  authoritative  guide.  It  is  a  form  of 
Pantheism,  but  differs  widely  from  that  of  European  philoso- 
phical systems. 

The  second  great  religious  class  of  the  Hindus  consists 
of  the  Saivas,  who,  as  we  have  seen,  are  believers  in  one  god 
Siva,  not  only  as  the  Dissolver  and  Regenerator,  but  as  the 
one  supreme  personal  God,  the  one  self-existent  Being,  iden- 
tified with  the  one  Spirit  of  the  Universe,  and  therefore  not 
liable  to  lose  his  personality  by  reabsorption  into  that  Spirit. 

The  third  class  consists  of  the  Vaishnavas,  who  are  believers 
in  the  one  personal  god  Vishnu,  not  only  as  the  Preserver,  but 
as  above  every  other  god,  including  Siva.  It  should  be  noted, 
too,  that  both  Saivas  and  Vaishnavas  agree  in  attributing  an 
essential  form  and  qualities  to  the  Supreme  Being.  Their  one 
God,  in  fact,  exists  in  an  eternal  body,  which  is  antecedent  to 
his  earthly  incarnations  and  survives  all  such  incarnations. 

Vaishnavism  then  is,  like  Saivism,  a  form  of  Monotheism. 
It  is  the  setting  aside  of  the  triune  equality  of  Brahma,  Siva, 
and  Vishnu  in  favour  of  one  god  Vishnu  (often  called  Hari), 
especially  as  manifested  in  his  two  human  incarnations  Rama 
and  Krishna.  '  Brahma  and  Siva,'  said  the  great  Vaishnava 
teacher  Madhva,  '  decay  with  their  decaying  bodies  ;  greater 
than  these  is  the  undecaying  Hari.'  And  here,  at  the  outset 
of  an  important  part  of  our  subject,  I  must  declare  my  belief 
that  Vaishnavism,  notwithstanding  the  gross  polytheistic 
superstitions  and  hideous  idolatry  to  which  it  gives  rise,  is 
the  only  real  religion  of  the  Hindu  peoples,  and  has  more 
common  ground  with  Christianity  than  any  other  form  of 
non-Christian  faith.  Vcdism  was  little  more  than  reveren- 
tial awe  of  the  forces  of  Nature  and  a  desire  to  propitiate 


Vaishnavism.     General  CJiaracteristics.  97 

them.  Brahmanism  was  simply  an  Indian  variety  of  panthe- 
istic philosophy.  Buddhism,  which  was  a  product  of  Brah- 
manism, and  in  many  points  very  similar  to  Brahmanism, 
gained  many  followers  by  its  disregard  of  caste- distinctions 
and  its  offers  of  deliverance  from  the  fires  of  passion  and 
miseries  of  life ;  but,  in  its  negations  and  denials  of  the 
existence  of  both  a  Supreme  and  human  spirit,  was  no 
religion  at  all ;  and  in  this  respect  never  commended  itself 
generally  to  the  Indian  mind.  Saivism,  though,  like  Vaish- 
navism,  it  recognized  the  eternal  personality  of  one  Supreme 
Being,  was  too  severe  and  cold  a  system  to  exert  exclusive 
influence  over  the  great  majority  of  the  Hindu  populations. 
Vaishnavism  alone  possesses  the  essential  elements  of  a 
genuine  religion.  For  there  can  be  no  true  religion  without 
personal  devotion  to  a  personal  God — without  trusting  Him, 
without  loving  Him,  without  praying  to  Him,  and  indeed 
without  obeying  Him. 

Who  can  doubt  that  a  God  of  such  a  character  was  needed 
for  India, — a  God  who  could  satisfy  the  yearnings  of  the 
heart  for  a  religion  of  faith,  love  and  prayer  rather  than  of 
knowledge  and  works  ?  Such  a  God  was  believed  to  be 
represented  by  Vishnu — the  God  who  evinced  his  sympathy 
with  mundane  suffering,  his  interest  in  human  affairs,  and 
his  activity  for  the  welfare  of  all  created  things  by  frequent 
descents  (avatara)  on  earth,  not  only  in  the  form  of  men, 
but  of  animals,  and  even  of  plants  and  stones. 

Hence  teachers  arose  (among  whom  was  Sandilya  the 
author  of  the  Bhakti-sutras)  who  insisted  on  the  doctrine  of 
salvation  by  faith  (Bhakti) — a  doctrine  dimly  adumbrated  in 
portions  of  the  Veda,  and  fully  propounded  in  the  Bhagavad- 
gita  and  Bhilgavata-purana. 

Intense  faith,  then,  in  a  personal  god  is  the  chief  charac- 
teristic of  Vaishnavism.  Of  course  it  is  merely  the  intensity 
of  this  faith  that  distinguishes  the  worship  of  Vishnu  from 
that  of  Siva  ;  for  both  Vaishnavism  and  Saivism  agree  in  dis- 

H 


98  Vaishnavism.     General  Characteristics.    . 

senting  from  the  vague  impersonal  Pantheism  of  Brahmanical 
philosophy,  whose  one  God  is  the  substratum  of  everything 
and  himself  nothing.  Nor  can  we  wonder  that  devotion  to 
Vishnu  in  his  two  human  incarnations,  Rama  and  Krishna, 
became  the  most  popular  religion  of  India.  These  two  heroes 
were  of  the  kingly  or  Kshatriya  caste,  and  greatly  beloved  as 
popular  leaders.  It  is  usual  to  assert  that  the  Brahmans  are 
the  highest  objects  of  worship  and  honour  among  the  Hindus. 
This  is  not  the  case  among  the  countless  adherents  of  the 
Vaishnava  religion.  The  mass  of  the  people  of  India  exalt 
the  divine  right  of  kings  and  the  divine  right  of  the  govern- 
ment of  the  day  above  all  other  forms  of  power,  and  worship 
every  great  and  heroic  leader  as  an  incarnation  of  the  deity. 

Yet,  with  all  its  popularity,  Vaishnavism  is  not  an  example 
of  a  house  at  peace  within  itself.  It  has  split  up  into  various 
subdivisions,  which  display  no  little  of  the  odium  theolo- 
gicum  in  their  opposition  to  each  other.  Possibly  antagonism 
of  some  kind  is  a  necessary  condition  of  religious  vitality. 
At  any  rate  in  India  all  religious  systems  inevitably  break 
up  into  sects,  and  seem  to  gather  strength  and  vigour  from 
the  process. 

It  is  not  uncommon.  Indeed,  to  hear  it  asserted  that 
Hinduism  is  rapidly  falling  to  pieces,  and  destined  soon  to 
collapse  altogether.  One  reason  given  for  the  doom  sup- 
posed to  be  impending  over  its  future  is,  that  it  is  not  a 
proselyting  religion.  And  the  truth  certainly  is  that  no 
stranger  can  be  admitted  as  a  convert  to  Hinduism  either  by 
making  any  particular  confession  of  faith  or  by  going  through 
any  prescribed  forms.  The  only  acknowledged  mode  of 
admission  is  by  birth.  To  become  a  Hindu  one  must  be 
born  a  Hindu.  Yet  Hinduism  is  continually  growing  within 
itself.  In  its  tenacity  of  life  and  power  of  expansion  it  may 
be  compared  to  the  sacred  banian-tree,  whose  thousand 
ramifications,  often  issuing  from  apparently  lifeless  stems, 
find  their  way  into  walls,  undermine  old  buildings,  or  them- 


Vaishnavism.     General  Characteristics.  99 

selves  descend  to  the  ground,  take  root  in  the  soil,  and  form 
fresh  centres  of  growth  and  vitality. 

And  it  cannot  be  doubted  that  one  great  conservative 
element  of  Hinduism  is  the  many-sidedness  of  Vaishnavism. 
For  Vaishnavism  is,  like  Buddhism,  the  most  tolerant  of  sys- 
tems. It  is  always  ready  to  accommodate  itself  to  other 
creeds,  and  delights  in  appropriating  to  itself  the  religious 
ideas  of  all  the  nations  of  the  world.  It  admits  of  every 
form  of  internal  development.  It  has  no  organized  hier- 
archy under  one  supreme  head,  but  it  may  have  any  number 
of  separate  associations  under  separate  leaders,  who  are  ever 
banding  themselves  together  for  the  extension  of  spiritual 
supremacy  over  ever-increasing  masses  of  the  population. 
It  has  no  formal  confession  of  faith,  but  it  has  an  elastic 
creed  capable  of  adaptation  to  all  varieties  of  opinion  and 
practice.  It  has  no  one  bible — no  one  collection  of  writings 
in  one  compact  volume,  like  our  own  Holy  Bible,  with  lines 
of  teaching  converging  towards  one  great  central  truth — but 
it  has  a  series  of  sacred  books,  called  Puranas,  each  of  which 
professes  to  be  a  direct  revelation  from  the  Supreme  Being, 
and  each  of  which  may  be  used  as  an  authority  for  the 
establishment  of  almost  any  kind  of  doctrine.  It  can,  like 
Brfdimanism,  be  pantheistic,  monotheistic,  dualistic,  polythe- 
istic. It  can,  like  Saivism,  enjoin  asceticism,  self-mortifi- 
cation, and  austerity.  It  can,  like  Saktism,  give  the  reins  to 
self-indulgence,  licentiousness,  and  carnality.  It  can,  like 
Buddhism,  preach  liberty,  equality,  fraternity;  or  inculcate 
universal  benevolence,  and  avoidance  of  injury  to  others.  It 
can  proclaim  Buddha  or  any  other  teacher  or  remarkable 
man  to  be  an  incarnation  of  Vishnu.  It  can  even  set  its 
face  against  idolatiy\  and  can  look  with  sympathizing  con- 
descension on  Christianity  itself,  or  hold  it  to  be  a  dcvelop- 

'  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  anti-idolatrous  sect  founded  by  Kabfr 
(to  be  afterwards  noticed)  grew  out  of  Vaishnavism. 

H  a 


lOO        Vaishnavism.     General  Characteristics, 

ment  of  its  own  theory  of  religion  suited  to  Europeans.  It 
is  owin"-  to  this  all-comprehensiveness  of  the  Vaishnava 
system  that  any  new  doctrine  or  any  new  view  of  old 
doctrines  may  be  promulgated  by  any  man  of  originality 
and  ability,  with  an  almost  certain  prospect  of  success.  And 
indeed  the  religious  credulity  of  the  inhabitants  of  India  in- 
creases in  proportion  to  their  unbelief  in  all  political  and  social 
innovations.  Broken  up  as  they  are  into  a  multitude  of  sepa- 
rate peoples,  few  in  that  country  have  any  desire  for  national 
union  or  intellectual  progress.  Few  wish  to  leave  the  path 
trodden  by  their  forefathers,  or  deviate  from  the  old  indurated 
ruts.  The  masses  of  the  various  populations  can  neither  read 
nor  write.  They  care  nothing  for  science.  History,  biogra- 
phy, and  political  economy  are  to  them  a  terra  incognita. 
Their  whole  desire  is  to  be  left  undisturbed  in  their  time- 
honoured  customs,  family  traditions,  and  caste  usages. 

One  only  subject  has  power  to  rouse  them  from  their 
normal  condition  of  mental  torpor.  That  subject  is  religion. 
Religion  (in  close  connexion  with  caste)  is  ever  present  to 
a  Hindu's  mind.  It  colours  all  his  ideas.  It  runs  through 
every  fibre  of  his  being.  It  is  the  very  Alpha  and  Omega 
of  his  whole  earthly  career.  He  is  born  religious,  and  dies 
religious.  He  is  religious  in  his  eating  and  drinking,  in 
his  sleeping  and  waking,  in  his  dressing  and  undressing,  in 
his  rising  up  and  sitting  down,  in  his  work  and  amusement. 
Nay,  religion  attends  him  in  antenatal  ceremonies  long  before 
his  birth,  and  follows  him  in  endless  offerings  for  the  good  of 
his  soul  long  after  death.  Let  any  one  appear  as  an  earnest 
preacher  of  religion  in  any  assemblage  of  ordinary  Hindus — 
let  him  announce  that  he  has  come  as  a  messenger  from 
heaven,  or  even  that  he  is  prepared  to  work  miracles  in  attes- 
tation of  the  truth  of  his  mission,  and  he  is  sure  of  being 
believed.  And  if  to  his  other  qualifications  he  adds  a 
character  for  self-denial  and  asceticism,  he  cannot  fail  to 
attract  disciples ;    for  nowhere  in  the  world  are  family  ties 


VaisJuiavism.     General  Characteristics.        loi 

so  binding  as  in  India,  and  yet  nowhere  is  such  homage 
paid  to  their  abandonment.  The  influence  of  any  new  rcH- 
gious  leader  (acfarya)  who  is  known  to  live  a  Hfe  of  absti- 
nence, bodily  mortification,  and  suppression  of  the  passions, 
is  sure  to  become  unbounded,  either  for  good  or  cvmI. 

Probably,  during  the  leader's  lifetime,  he  is  able  to  restrain 
the  enthusiasm  of  his  converts  within  reasonable  limits.  It 
is  only  when  he  dies  that  they  are  apt  to  push  his  opinions 
to  extremes  never  intended  by  himself.  Eventually  they 
develop  his  teaching  into  an  overgrown  unhealthy  system, 
the  internal  rottenness  of  which  disgusts  all  sensible  men, 
even  among  its  own  adherents.  Then  some  new  teacher 
arises  to  re-establish  purity  of  doctrine.  He  is,  of  course, 
in  his  turn  a  man  of  earnestness  and  energy,  with  a  strong 
will,  and  great  powers  of  persuasion.  He  collects  around 
him  with  equal  facility  a  number  of  followers,  and  those  in 
their  turn  carry  his  teaching  to  preposterous  lengths. 

Hence  the  condition  of  Vaishnavism,  which  depends  far 
more  than  Saivism  on  personal  leadership  and  influence,  is 
one  of  perpetual  decay  and  revival,  collapse  and  recovery. 
Its  fluctuations  resemble  those  of  a  vast  ocean  heaving  this 
way  and  that  in  continual  flux  and  reflux. 

It  is  doubtless  true  that  all  human  systems  are  liable  to 
similar  alternations.  But  in  India  every  tendency  of  humanity 
seems  intensified  and  exaggerated.  No  country  in  the  world 
is  so  conservative  in  its  traditions,  yet  no  country  has  under- 
gone so  many  religious  changes  and  vicissitudes.  To  follow 
out  in  detail  the  whole  drama  of  Vaishnavism  would  require 
volumes.  Even  the  first  act  presents  us  with  a  succession 
of  shifting  scenes. 

In  all  likelihood  the  primary  idea  of  a  god  Vishnu  (a  name 
derived  from  root  vish,  'to  pervade'),  permeating  and  infusing 
his  essence  into  material  objects,  \v^as  originally  connected  with 
the  personification  of  the  infinite  heavenly  space.  We  know 
that  in  the  Rig-veda  Vishnu   is  a  form  of  the  ever-moving 


I02        Vaishnavism.     General  Characteristies. 

solar  orb,  and  in  a  well-known  hymn  (I.  22,  16,  17),  still 
commonly  used  by  the  Brahmans,  he  is  described  as  striding 
through  the  seven  worlds '  in  three  steps,  and  enveloping  the 
universe  with  the  dust  of  his  beams.  A  later  work,  the  Aitareya- 
brahmana  of  the  Rig-veda,  opens  with  the  following  remark- 
able statement :  '  Fire  (Agni)  has  the  lowest  place  among  the 
gods,  Vishnu  the  highest ;  between  them  stand  all  the  other 
deities.'  (Haug's  edition,  I.) 

Elsewhere  the  god  Vishnu  is  connected  with  water.  In 
Manu's  Law-book  (I.  10)  the  Supreme  Spirit  is  called  Nara- 
yana.  as  moving  on  the  waters ;  in  harmony  with  which  idea 
Vishnu  is  often  represented  in  sculptures,  images,  and  pictures 
as  Narayana  in  human  form,  reposing  on  the  thousand- 
headed  serpent  and  floating  on  the  ocean. 

In  the  later  mythology  of  Brahmanism,  when  the  doctrine 
of  the  triad  of  personal  gods  (Tri-murti)  had  been  fully  deve- 
loped and  Vishnu  had  taken  his  place  as  the  second  person  of 
that  triad,  he  has  a  less  distinctly  marked  human  personality, 
antecedent  to  his  incarnations,  than  the  god  Siva. 

To  write  a  biograpliical  account  of  the  god  Vishnu's  life 
in  his  own  heavenly  abode,  like  the  life  of  his  rival  Siva 
(p.  78),  would  be  difficult.  The  truth  is  that  the  development 
of  his  human  personality,  which  is  really  greater  than  that  of 
any  other  god  in  the  Hindu  pantheon,  must  be  looked  for  on 
earth  in  the  forms  of  Rama  and  Krishna. 

Nevertheless  in  his  antecedent  condition  as  Vishnu,  this 
deity  has  a  material  character  and  individuality  of  his  own 
quite  irrespective  of  his  incarnations.  He  is  described  as 
living  in  Vaikuntha— a  locality,  as  we  have  seen,  more  inac- 


'  There  are  seven  lower  regions,  viz.  Atala,  Vitala,  Sutala,  Rasatala, 
Talatala,  MahfUala,  and  Patala ;  above  which  are  the  seven  Lokas  or 
worlds,  called  IJhur  (the  earth),  Khuvar,  Svar,  Mahah,  Janal.i,  Tapah,  and 
Brahma  or  Satya.  Sometimes  the  first  three  of  these,  the  earth  (Bhu), 
atmosphere  (Bhuvar),  and  heavens  (Svar),  are  supposed  to  comprehend 
all  the  worlds. 


VaisJutavism.     General  Characteristics.        lo 


o 


cessible  and  less  easy  to  identify  with  any  definite  spot  on 
earth  than  Siva's  abode  Kailasa  (p,  79).  He  has  a  wife 
Lakshml  or  Sri,  the  goddess  of  fortune  and  beauty,  who 
is  fabled  to  have  sprung,  with  other  precious  things,  from  the 
froth  of  the  ocean  when  churned  by  the  gods  and  demons 
(see  p,  108).  And  as  Vishnu  in  his  non-Avatara  condition 
lives  a  life  which  has  fewer  features  in  common  with  humanity 
than  that  of  Siva,  so  is  his  wife  Lakshml  less  human  than 
Siva's  wife  Parvatl.  In  fact  the  more  human  side  of  both 
the  god  and  goddess  is  reserved  for  their  descents  in  human 
form— Vishnu  as  Rama  and  Krishna,  Lakshml  as  Slta  and 
Radha.  Nevertheless  some  details  of  Vishnu's  separate  per- 
sonality as  distinct  from  his  Avataras  may  be  gathered  from 
the  Puranas.  For  example,  we  are  told  that  he  has  a  pecu- 
liar auspicious  mark  (SrI-vatsa)  on  his  breast ^  He  has 
four  arms,  and  holds  a  symbol  in  each  of  his  four  hands ; 
namely,  a  wheel  or  circular  weapon  (cakra)  called  Sudarsana, 
a  conch-shelP  (sarikha)  called  Pafic'ajanya,  a  club  (gada) 
called  KaumodakI,  and  a  lotus-flower  (padma).  Of  these  the 
circular  symbol  may  possibly  have  been  borrowed  from 
Buddhism.  If  so,  it  was  originally  significant  of  the  wheel 
of  the  Buddhistic  law,  or  of  the  cosmical  cycles  peculiar  to 

'  Described  as  a  peculiar  twist  or  curl  of  the  hair.  In  one  form  of 
Krishna  (as  \'ithoba  in  the  Maratha  country)  his  breast  has  a  foot-mark, 
believed  to  be  the  indelible  impress  of  the  blow  from  the  sage  Bhrigu's 
foot  (see  the  story  at  p.  45). 

-  One  account  describes  the  sacred  conch-shell  as  thrown  up  by  the 
sea  when  churned  by  the  gods  and  demons  (see  p.  108).  Another  account 
makes  Vishnu's  shell  consist  of  the  bones  of  the  demon  Pancajana. 
According  to  the  Vishnu-purana  (V.  21),  'this  demon  lived  in  the  form 
of  a  conch-shell  under  the  ocean.  Krishna  (Vishnu)  plunged  into  the 
waters,  killed  him,  took  the  shell  which  constituted  his  bones,  and  ever 
afterwards  used  it  for  a  horn.  When  sounded  it  fills  the  demon-hosts 
with  dismay,  animates  the  gods,  and  annihilates  unrighteousness.' 
Vishiiu  is  believed  to  take  such  delight  in  this  shell,  that  a  small  shell 
of  the  same  species  is  used  in  pouring  holy  water  over  his  idols  and 
symbols  in  the  performance  of  his  worship.  It  is  also  frequently  branded 
on  the  arms  of  his  worshippers. 


104        Vaishnavism.     General  Characteristies. 

that  system.  Or,  bearing  in  mind  Vishnu's  connection  with 
the  Sun,  we  may  reasonably  regard  it  as  emblematical  of 
the  Sun's  circular  course  in  the  heavens \  In  the  later  my- 
thology it  is  supposed  to  represent  a  missile  weapon  hurled 
by  Vishnu,  like  a  quoit,  at  the  demons  who  are  ever  plotting 
evil  against  gods  and  men,  and  with  whom  he  is  always  at 
war^.  Similarly  the  conch-shell  is  blown  by  him  like  a 
trumpet  in  his  battles ;  its  miraculous  sound  filling  his  ene- 
mies with  terror  and  helping  him  to  secure  victory.  The 
club  is  also  used  in  Vishnu's  conflicts  with  his  demon-foes. 
Moreover  he  is  armed  with  a  wonderful  bow  called  Sarrigra 
and  a  sword  Nandaka.  He  has  a  jewel  on  his  wrist  named 
Syamantaka,  and  another  on  his  breast  called  Kaustubha. 
When  he  has  occasion  to  move  through  space  he  is  borne 
on  the  mythical  bird  Garuda^,  closely  related  to  the  Sun  and 
compared  to  an  eagle,  but  represented  as  semi-human  in 
form  and  character,  with  a  bird-like  face.  Possibly  this 
Garuda  may  be  a  personification  of  the  sky  or  ethereal  ele- 
ment which  supports  Vishnu — identified  with  the  Sun — one 


^  The  Svastika  mark  is  a  kind  of  curtailed  form  of  this  wheel,  and 
may  be  supposed  to  consist  of  four  spokes  and  a  portion  of  the  circum- 
ference, left  to  denote  the  direction  in  which  it  must  turn  to  symbolize 
the  Sun's  course  in  the  heavens.  This  conjecture,  which  I  formed  long 
ago,  is  confirmed  by  Mr.  Edw.  Thomas's  article  in  the  Numismatic 
Chronicle. 

-  The  names  of  some  of  the  chief  demons  thus  destroyed  by  Vishnu 
(or  Krishna  identified  with  Vishnu)  are  Madhu,  Kansa,  Bana,  Bali, 
Mura,  etc. 

'  In  some  parts  of  Southern  India  Garucla  is  an  object  of  worship, 
I  frequently  came  across  images  of  him  in  the  galleries  of  Vaishnava 
temples.  He  is  the  son  of  Kasyapa  and  Vinata,  and  hence  Aruna  the 
Dawn,  regarded  as  charioteer  of  the  Sun,  is  his  younger  brother.  '  Most 
of  the  Hindu  deities  are  described  as  associated  with  or  attended  by 
their  own  favourite  animals,  which  they  sometimes  use  as  vehicles 
(vahana).  Brahma  is  attended  by  a  goose  or  swan  (hansa)  ;  Siva  by 
a  bull  (see  p.  8i)  ;  Karttikeya  or  Skanda  by  a  peacock  ;  Indra  by  an 
elephant;  Yama  by  a  buffalo  (mahisha)  ;  Kama,  'god  of  love,'  by  a 
parrot  ;  Ganesa  by  a  rat  ;  Agni  by  a  ram  ;  Varuna  by  a  fish  ;  Durga.by 
a  tiger.     Serpents  are  associated  with  both  Siva  and  Vishnu. 


Vaishnavisvi.     General  Characteristics.        105 

of  whose  names  is  'Air-borne'  (Vayu-vahana).  It  is  note- 
worthy that  Garuda,  h'ke  the  Krishna  form  of  Vishnu,  is 
the  destroyer  of  serpents  which  typify  sin  and  evil  (compare 
p.  113).  Yet  serpents  have  also  their  contrary  character,  and 
even  divine  attributes ;  for  at  the  dissolution  of  the  Universe 
and  between  the  intervals  of  creation,  Vishnu,  as  the  Su- 
preme Being  (see  p.  102),  reclines  in  profound  repose  on  the 
thousand-headed  serpent  Sesha — typical  of  infinity — while  his 
wife  Lakshm!  chafes  his  feet,  and  out  of  his  navel  grows  the 
lotus  which  supports  Brahma,  the  active  agent  in  repro- 
ducing the  world.  Finally,  Vishnu  has  the  river  Ganges 
issuing  from  one  of  his  feet,  whence  it  flows  through  the  sky 
before  it  falls  on  the  head  of  the  god  Siva  (see  p.  80). 

And  here  it  may  be  noted  that  the  devotional  enthusiasm 
of  Vishnu's  worshippers  has  endowed  him  with  a  thousand 
names  and  epithets  ^  This  is  exactly  eight  less  than  the 
Saivas  have  lavished  on  Siva,  and,  considering  the  rivalry 
between  the  followers  of  the  two  deities,  must  be  regarded  as 
a  modest  allowance.  The  repetition  of  any  or  all  of  these 
names  (nama-sahklrtana),  either  with  or  without  the  help  of 
a  rosary,  constitutes  an  important  part  of  daily  worship,  and 
is  effective  of  vast  stores  of  religious  merit.  They  are  all 
enumerated  with  those  of  Siva  in  the  Anusasana-parva  of 
the  Maha-bharata  (i  144-1266,  6950-7056)2. 

In  comparing  the  two  catalogues  it  is  interesting  to  observe 

'  Of  course  the  greater  number  of  the  names  are  simply  epithets. 
The  Muhammadans  reckon  ninety-nine  names  and  epithets  of  God,  and 
make  the  repetition  (zikr)  of  them  a  work  of  enormous  religious  merit. 
In  the  same  way  the  Jews  attach  great  efficacy  to  the  repetition  of  the 
Divine  epithets.  Christianity  reckons,  I  believe,  about  ninety  epithets 
of  Christ,  but  no  Christian  thinks  of  repeating  them  as  a  meritorious 
exercise.  Aristotle,  I  think,  enumerates  more  than  a  hundred  names 
and  epithets  applicable  to  Zeus  ;  but  the  Greeks  and  Romans  do  not 
appear  to  have  believed  in  any  religious  advantage  attending  their 
mechanical  recital. 

-  I  notice  several  repetitions  of  the  same  name  in  the  catalogue  ;  for 
instance,  Aditya,  Sthanu,  Srashtri. 


io6        Vaishnavism.     General  Charaeteristics. 

how  many  names  are  common  to  both  deities.  Vishnu, 
especially,  has  a  large  number  of  names  which  he  shares 
with  the  rival  god,  and  is  even  called  Siva  'the  Auspicious;' 
while  Siva  is  called  Vishnu,  the  Pervader,  each  in  fact  usurp- 
ing the  functions  of  the  other.  Moreover,  to  both  deities  is 
allotted  an  ample  assortment  of  the  usual  titles  expressive 
of  almighty  power — such  as  all-creating,  all-seeing,  all-know- 
ing, infinite,  self-existent,  all-pervading — mixed  up  with  many 
which  are  unworthy  of  beings  claiming  divine  homage.  Vishnu 
has  certainly  fewer  objectionable  epithets  than  Siva. 

Many  names  of  both  gods  are  simply  taken  from  those  of 
the  Sun,  Fire,  and  Wind  ;  and  many  are  expressive  of  lofty 
divine  attributes — once  believed  to  be  the  peculiar  property 
of  Christian  theology.  For  example,  Vishnu  is  called  'the 
holy  Being'  (Pavitram,  also  applied  to  Siva),  'the  True' 
(Satyah),  'the  Pure  Spirit'  (or  'having  a  pure  spirit,'  Piatatma), 
'the  Way'  (Margah),  'the  Truth'  (Tattvam),  'the  Life'  (Pra- 
nah),  'the  Physician'  (Vaidyah),  'the  World's  Medicine' 
(Aushadham  or  Bheshajam  Jagatah),  '  the  Father'  (Pita),  and 
even  '  the  Holy  of  the  Holy'  (Pavitram  Pavitranam)^ — an 
epithet  which  it  is  difficult  to  reconcile  with  some  of  the 
actions  of  his  Krishna  manifestation. 

On  the  other  hand,  Siva  is  called  by  the  following  names 
in  addition  to  those  already  mentioned  at  pp.  81-85  : — the 
Mother  (Mata,  as  well  as  Pita,  the  Father),  Extinction 
(Nirvanam),  the  Year-causer  (Sarnvatsara-karah),  the  great 
Illusionist  (Mahamayah),  the  Night-walker  (Nisac'arah),  the 
Hidden  Fire  (Badava-mukhah,  'Mare-faced'),  the  White  One 

'  Other  remarkable  names  and  epithets  of  Vishnu  are  the  following: — 
'the  liridge'  (Setul.i),  'the  Guide'  (Neta),  'the  Air"(Sarvah),  'the  Refuge' 
(Saranam),  'the  Friend'  (Suhrid),  'the  Affectionate'  (Vatsalah),  'the 
Benefactor'  (Priya-krit),  'the  Witness'  (Sakshi),  'the  Patient'  (Sahish- 
nuh),  'the  Peace-giver'  (Santi-dah),  'the  Authority'  (Pramanam), 'the 
Mysterious  one'  (Ciuhyal.i),  'the  Undying-bodied  one'  (Amrita-vapul.i), 
'the  Holy'  (Brahmai.iyah),  'the  Winkless'  (Animishal.i),  'the  Desired 
one'  (Ishtah),  'the  Who.?'  (Kali),  'the  What'  (Kim). 


Vaishnavism.     Ten  IncarnatioHS.  107 

(Suklah),  the  Enraged  (Mahakrodliah).  the  Root  (Mulam),  the 
Ill-formed  (Virupah),  the  Mule  (Haya-gardabhih,  mixture  of 
the  qualities  of  horse  and  ass  ?) 

Again,  some  of  Vishnu's  designations  as  Krishna,  such  as 
Tartha-sarathi,  'Charioteer  of  Arjuna'  (under  which  title  he 
is  worshipped  at  Madras),  and  Vehkatesa,  '  Lord  of  the  hill 
Venkata,'  are,  like  those  of  Siva,  merely  local  epithets ;  and 
some  (as  for  example  Vithoba,  worshipped  at  Pandharpur) 
are  the  result  of  his  identification  with  particular  local  heroes. 

I  need  scarcely  repeat  that  the  chief  distinguishing  cha- 
racteristic of  the  god  Vishnu  is  his  condescending  to  infuse 
his  essence  into  animals  and  men  with  the  object  of  deliver- 
ing his  worshippers  from  certain  special  dangers  or  otherwise 
benefiting  mankind.  The  peculiar  nature  of  these  so-called 
incarnations  or  descents  (Avatara),  and  the  vast  difference 
between  the  Hindu  and  Christian  idea  of  incarnation,  have 
been  already  described  (see  p.  ^l).  In  some  of  the  Turanas 
Vishnu's  incarnations  are  multiplied  to  the  number  of  twenty- 
two,  twenty-four,  or  even  twenty-eight.  But  the  ten  which 
follow  are  those  most  generally  known  and  believed  in 
throughout  India  : — 

I.  The  Fish  (Matsya).  Vishnu  is  believed  to  have  infused 
a  portion  of  his  essence  into  the  body  of  a  fish  to  save 
Manu\  the  primeval  man  and  progenitor  of  the  human  race, 
from  the  universal  deluge.  This  ]\Ianu,  like  Noah,  concili- 
ated the  Deity's  favour  by  his  piety  and  austerities  in  an 
age  of  universal  depravity.  Hence  he  was  miraculously 
warned  of  the  approaching  deluge,  and  was  commanded  to 
build  a  ship  and  go  on  board  with  the  seven  Rishis,  or 
patriarchs,  and  the  seeds  of  all  existing  things.  Manu  did 
so.  The  flood  came,  and  Vishnu  took  the  form  of  a  vast 
fish  with  a  horn  on  its  head,  to  which  the  ship's  cable  was 

^  That  is,  the  Manu  of  the  present  period— not  to  be  confounded  with 
Brahma's  grandson,  the  supposed  author  of  the  well-known  Law-book. 
The  name  Manu  is  from  the  root  man,  '  to  think.' 


io8  Vais/iuavism.      Teti  Incarnations. 

fastened.     The   ship  was   thus   supernaturally   drawn   along 
and  secured  to  a  high  crag  till  the  flood  had  passed. 

2.  The  Tortoise  (Kurma).  Vishnu  infused  a  portion  of 
his  essence  into  the  body  of  an  immense  tortoise  to  aid  in 
producing  or  recovering  certain  valuable  articles,  some  of 
which  had  been  lost  in  the  deluge.  For  this  purpose  he 
stationed  himself  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea  of  milk — one  of 
the  seven  concentric  circular  seas  surrounding  the  seven 
concentric  circular  continents  of  the  earth  —  that  his  back 
might  serve  as  a  pivot  for  the  mountain  Mandara,  around 
which  the  gods  and  demons  twisted  the  great  serpent 
Vasuki.  They  then  stood  opposite  to  each  otherj  and  using 
the  snake  as  a  rope  and  the  mountain  as  a  churning-rod, 
churned  the  milky  ocean  violently  till,  one  by  one,  fourteen 
inestimably  valuable  or  typical  objects  emerged \  i.  The 
nectar  conferring  immortality  (Amrita).  2.  The  physician 
of  the  gods  and  holder  of  the  nectar  (Dhanvantari).  3.  The 
goddess  of  good  fortune  and  beauty,  wife  of  Vishnu  (Lakshmi 
or  Sri).  4.  The  goddess  of  wine  (Sura)^.  5.  The  moon 
((Sandra).  6.  The  nymph  Rambha,  celebrated  as  a  kind 
of  prototype  of  lovely  women.  7.  A  fabulous  high-eared 
horse  (Uccaih-sravas),  the  supposed  prototype  of  the  equine 
race.  8.  The  miraculous  jewel  Kaustubha,  afterwards  appro- 
priated by  Krishna.  9.  A  celestial  tree  (Parijata)  yielding 
all  desired  objects.  10.  The  cow  of  plenty  (Kama-dhenu 
or  Surabhi),  granting  all  boons.     11.  A  mythical  elephant 

*  When  I  asked  any  Indian  Pandit  how  it  was  possible  to  believe  in 
what  to  us  appears  an  extravagant  fable,  I  was  always  told  that  it  was 
simply  allegorical,  and  only  intended  to  typify  the  truth  that  nothing 
valuable  can  be  produced  without  extraordinary  exertion. 

'■*  This  is  one  proof  out  of  many  that  the  drinking  of  wine  and  spirits 
was  once  not  only  common  in  India,  but  also  sanctioned  by  religion. 
In  Vedic  times  wine  appears  to  have  been  preserved  in  leathern  bottles, 
sec  Rig-veda  I.  191.  10  (Rajendralala  Mitra's  Essays,  VII).  Unhappily 
the  sect  of  Saktas  (see  the  chapter  on  Saktism)  may  claim  scriptural 
authority  for  their  orgies,  and  appeal  to  the  example  of  their  gods  Siva 
and  Balarama. 


Vaishnavism.      Ten  Incarnations.  109 

(Airavata) — afterwards  appropriated  by  the  god  Indra  — 
prototype  of  the  elephantine  race.  12.  A  sacred  conch-shell 
(Sarikha),  afterwards  the  property  of  Vishnu  (or  Krishna), 
and  supposed,  when  blown  as  a  horn,  to  insure  victory  over 
his  enemies  (see  note,  p.  103).  13,  A  miraculous  unerring  bow 
(Dhanus)^     14.  A  deadly  poison  (Visha). 

3.  The  Boar  (Varaha).  Vishnu  infused  a  portion  of  his 
essence  into  the  body  of  a  huge  boar — symbolical  of  strength 
— to  deliver  the  world  from  the  power  of  the  demon  Hira- 
nyaksha,  who  had  seized  the  earth  and  carried  it  down  into 
the  depths  of  the  ocean.  The  divine  boar  dived  down  into 
the  abyss,  and  after  a  contest  of  a  thousand  years,  slew  the 
monster  and  brought  back  the  earth  to  the  surface.  Another 
legend  represents  the  earth  as  completely  submerged  by  the 
deluge  and  likely  to  remain  for  ever  lost  in  the  waters,  had 
not  the  boar  descended  into  the  flood  and  with  his  mighty 
tusks  upheaved  it  from  its  watery  grave  and  made  it  fit  to  be 
reinhabited. 

4,  The  Man-lion  (Nara-sinha).  Vishnu  assumed  the  shape 
of  a  creature,  half  man,  half  lion,  to  deliver  the  world  from 
the  tyrant  Hiranya-kasipu,  who  had  obtained  a  boon  from 
Brahma  that  he  should  not  be  slain  by  either  god  or  man  or 
animal.  Hence  he  became  powerful  enough  to  usurp  the 
dominion  of  the  three  worlds.  He  even  appropriated  the 
sacrifices  intended  for  the  gods  and  necessary  for  their  sup- 
port. When  his  pious  son  Prahlada  praised  Vishnu,  the 
tyrant  tried  to  destroy  the  boy;  but  Vishnu  appeared  sud- 
denly out  of  the  centre  of  a  pillar  in  a  shape  neither  god, 
man,  nor  animal,  and  tore  Hiranya-kasipu  to  pieces. 

These  first  four  incarnations  are  said  to  have  taken  place 
in  the  first  and  best  (satya)  of  the  four  ages  of  the  world. 

^  Two  such  bows  are  mentioned  in  Hindu  mythology,  one  the  property 
of  Siva  and  the  other  of  Vishnu.  It  was  by  bending  Siva's  bow — which 
no  other  merely  human  suitor  was  able  to  do — that  Rama  won  Janaka's 
daughter  Sita  (see  Ramayana  I.  57). 


no  Vaishnavism.     Ten  Incarnations. 

5.  The  Dwarf  (Vamana).  In  the  second  (Treta)  age  of 
the  world  \  Vishnu  infused  a  portion  of  his  essence  into  the 
body  of  a  dwarf  to  wrest  from  the  tyrant-demon  Bah  (the 
analogue  of  Ravana  and  Kansa,  the  two  opponents  of  the 
Rama  and  Krishna  incarnations  respectively)  the  dominion  of 
the  three  worlds.  The  apparently  contemptible  little  dwarf 
presented  himself  one  day  before  the  Tyrant,  and  solicited  as 
much  land  as  he  could  step  in  three  paces.  No  sooner  was 
his  request  granted  than  his  form  expanded,  and  he  strode  in 
two  steps  over  heaven  and  earth,  but  out  of  compassion  left 
the  lower  world  in  the  demon's  possession. 

6.  Rama  with  the  axe  (Parasu-rama).  Vishnu  infused  a 
portion  of  his  essence  into  the  axe-armed  Rama,  son  of  the 
Brahman  Jamadagni  and  descendant  of  Bhrigu,  in  the  second 
age,  to  prevent  the  military  caste,  or  Kshatriyas,  from  tyran- 
nizing over  the  Brahmanical.  Parasu-rama  is  said  to  have 
cleared  the  earth  twenty-one  times  of  the  whole  Kshatriya  race. 

7.  In  the  seventh  descent  Vishnu  infused  half  of  his  essence 
into  the  great  hero  Rama,  commonly  called  Rama-candra, 
*  the  beautiful  or  moon-like  Rama^.'  This  celebrated  hero, 
who  afterwards  became  an  object  of  worship  throughout  a 
great  part  of  India,  was  believed  to  have  been  manifested 
as  an  incarnation  of  Vishnu  at  the  close  of  the  second  or 
Treta  age  to  destroy  the  tyrant-demon  Ravana  who  reigned 
in  Ceylon.  India  was  never  under  one  monarch,  and  in 
ancient  times  its  kings  were  simply  petty  princes  and  chief- 
tains, who  ruled  over  districts  of  more  or  less  extended  area, 
and  Oudh  (Ayodhya)  was  probably  one  of  the  more  powerful 
principalities.  As  a  historical  fact  Rama  was  no  doubt  one 
of  the  four  sons  of  a  king  of  Oudh,  named  Dasa-ratha,  of  the 
so-called  Solar    race,  and  therefore  a  Kshatriya.     The  real 

^  This  would  be  the  third  age  reckoning  backwards,  and  is  therefore 
called  Treta. 

"^  In  paintings  he  is  often  represented  with  a  peculiar  greenish  com- 
plexion.    The  exact  significance  of  dandra  is  not  clear. 


Vaishnavism.      Ten  Incarnations.  1 1 1 

date  of  Rama's  birth,  in  the  absence  of  all  trustworthy  histo- 
rical  records,  can  only  be  a  matter  of  the  most  uncertain 
conjecture.     He  is  celebrated  throughout  India  as  the  model 
son,  brother,  and  husband,  who  was  banished  by  his  father  to 
the  Southern  forests.     There  his  pattern-wife  Sita  was  carried 
off  by  Ravana,  the  tyrant-king  of  Ceylon,  and  recovered  by 
Rama  after  making  a  bridge  of  rocks  to  the  island.     He  was 
aided  by  Hanuman — a  powerful  chief  of  one  of  the  aboriginal 
tribes,  poetically  compared   to  monkeys.     This  story  forms 
the  subject  of  one  of  the  two  great  Indian  Epics — the  Rama- 
yana — and  no  story  in  the  world  has  obtained  a  wider  circu- 
lation and  celebrity.     Every  man,  woman,  and  child  in  India 
is  familiar  with  Rama's  exploits  for  the  recovery  of  his  wife, 
insomuch  that  a  common  phrase  for  an  ignorant  person  is 
'one  who  does  not  know  that  Sita  was  Rama's  wife.'     From 
Kasmir  to  Cape  Comorin  the    name  of  Rama  is  on  every 
one's  lips.    All  sects  revere  it,  and  show  their  reverence  by 
employing  it  on  all  occasions.     For  example,  when  friends 
meet  it  is  common  for  them  to  salute  each  other  by  utter- 
ing Rama's  name  twice.     Then  no  name  is  more  commonly 
given  to  children,  and  no  name  is  more  commonly  invoked 
in  the  hour  of  death.     It  is  a  link  of  union  for  all  classes, 
castes,  and  creeds.     And  yet  it  is  highly  probable  that  during 
his  lifetime  Rama  received  little  more  than  the  usual  homage 
offered  to  every  great,  good,  and  brave  man.     His  apotheosis 
did  not  take  place  till  after  his  death,  when   he  was   con- 
verted into  one  of  the  most  popular  incarnations  of  Vishnu  ; 
his  ally  Hanuman  also  receiving  divine  honours. 

8.  The  eighth  descent  was  as  Krishna,  the  dark  hero-god; 
the  most  popular  of  all  the  later  deities  of  India.  This 
descent  of  Vishnu  at  the  end  of  the  Dvapara  or  third  age 
of  the  world,  as  the  eighth  son  of  Vasudeva  and  DevakI, 
of  the  Lunar  race  of  chiefs,  was  for  the  destruction  of  the 
tyrant  Kansa,  the  representative  of  the  principle  of  evil — 
the  analogue  of  Ravana  in  the  previous  incarnation. 


1 1 2  WiisJniavisvi.      Ten  Incarnations, 

According  to  some  Krishna  ought  not  to  be  reckoned  as 
one  of  the  ten  Avataras  or  descents  of  portions  of  Vishnu's 
essence ;  for  he  was  nothing  short  of  Vishnu's  whole  essence. 
Those  who  hold  this  doctrine  substitute  Bala-rama,  '  the 
strong  Rama,'  an  elder  son  of  Vasudeva  and  Devakl,  and 
therefore  elder  brother  of  Krishna,  as  the  eighth  incarnation 
of  Vishnu.  This  Bala-rama  is  more  usually  regarded  as  an 
incarnation  of  the  great  serpent  Sesha.  He  is  sometimes 
called  the  Indian  Hercules,  but  without  any  good  reason. 
No  wonderful  feats  of  strength  are  recorded  of  him,  though 
he  wields  a  formidable  weapon  in  the  shape  of  a  plough- 
share, as  well  as  a  pestle-shaped  club  (musala).  He  is 
chiefly  remarkable  for  his  love  of  wine  and  strong  drink,  in 
which,  along  with  his  wife  RevatI,  he  frequently  indulges 
to  the  verge  of  inebriation.  Compare  note  1,  p.  io8,  and  my 
Indian  Wisdom,  p.  335. 

The  details  of  the  later  life  of  Krishna  are  interwoven  with 
the  later  portions  of  the  Maha-bharata,  but  do  not  belong  to 
the  plot,  and  might  be  omitted  without  impairing  its  unity. 
He  is  certainly  not  the  hero  of  the  great  epic.  He  merely 
appears  as  a  powerful  chiefs  who  takes  the  side  of  the  real 
heroes — the  Pandavas — and  his  claims  to  divine  rank  are 
often  disputed  during  the  progress  of  the  story.  Even  since 
his  apotheosis  Krishna  has  always  been  peculiarly  the  god 
of  the  lower  orders,  for  although  of  the  kingly  caste  he 
was  brought  up  among  cowherds,  cowherdesses,  and  the 
families  of  peasants.  His  juvenile  biography  is  given  with 
much  ^  minuteness  of  detail  in  the  Bhagavata-purana,  from 
which  wc  learn  that  Vasudeva  of  the  so-called  Lunar  race 
of  princes — who  probably  occupied  the   part  of  India  now 

^  Krishna  was  no  doubt  a  powerful  chief  of  the  Yadava  tribe,  who  were 
probably  Rajputs  occupying  a  district  of  Central  India  south  of  Muttra 
(Mathura)  and  east  of  the  Jumna.  The  real  date  of  his  birth,  though 
kept  as  a  holy  day  and  holiday  throughout  a  great  part  of  India,  cannot 
be  fixed  with  any  more  certainty  than  that  of  Rama ;  but  in  all  proba- 
bility he  lived  in  more  recent  times  than  Rama. 


VaisJuiavism.      Ten  Ijicai'uations.  113 

called  Rajputana'— had  two  wives,  RohinI  and  DcvakT.     The 
latter  had  eight  sons,  of  whom  the  eighth  was  Krishna.     It 
was  predicted  that  one  of  the  eight  would  kill  Kansa,  chief 
of  Mathura  (Muttra),  and  cousin  of  Devakl.     Kansa  therefore 
imprisoned  Vasudeva  and  his  wife,  and   slew  their  first  six 
children.     Bala-rama,  the  seventh,  was  abstracted  from  De- 
vaki's  womb,  transferred  to  that    of  RohinI,  and    so   saved. 
The  eighth  was  Krishna,  born  with  a  black  skin,  and  the  mark 
SrT-vatsa   on    his    breast^.       His   father  Vasudeva   escaped 
from   Mathura  with    the   child,  and,  favoured    by  the   gods, 
found  a  certain  herdsman    named    Nanda,  whose   wife   had 
lately  had  a  child.     To   his  care   he   consigned    the    infant 
Krishna.     Nanda  settled  first  in  Gokula  or  Vraja,  and  after- 
wards in  Vrindavana,  where  Krishna  and  Bala-rama  grew  up 
together,  roaming  in  the  woods,  and  joining  in  the  sports  of 
the   herdsman's    sons    and    daughters.      While    still   a   boy, 
Krishna  gave  proof  of  his  divine  origin  by  working  a  few 
startling  miracles.     Thus  he   destroyed  the  serpent  Krdiya 
— regarded    as  a  type   of  sin   and    evil — by  trampling   and 
dancing  on  his  head.     He  lifted  up  the  mountain-range  Go- 
vardhana  on  his  finger  to  shelter  the  herdsmen's  wives  from 
the  wrath  of  Indra.    Yet  in  spite  of  these  and  other  evidences 
of  his  supramundane  nature  and  powers,  Krishna  is  described 
as  addicted  to  very  mundane  practices.     He  constantly  sported 
with  the  Gopis  or  wives  and  daughters  of  the  cowherds,  of 
w4iom  eight  were  his  favourites,  especially  Radha.    On  attain- 
ing mature  age  Krishna  migrated  to  Gujarat,  built  Dvarika 
on  the  coast  of  that  country,  and  thither  transported  the  in- 
habitants of  Mathura  after  killing  Kansa.     Krishna  is  said  to 


'  The  two  most  powerful  lines  of  Indian  princes,  those  of  Oudh  and 
Rajputana,  were  careful  to  trace  back  their  pedigree  to  superhuman 
origins,  the  former  claiming  the  Sun-god  and  the  latter  the  Moon-god  as 
their  primeval  progenitors. 

2  Compare  note  i,  p.  103.  The  day  of  his  birth  is  called  Janmashtaml, 
It  is  kept  on  the  eighth  day  of  the  dark  half  of  the  month  Bhadra  in  some 
places,  and  of  Sravana  in  others. 

X 


« 

114  Vaishnavism.      Ten  Incarnations. 

have  had  countless  wives,  and  at  least  108,000  sons,  but  they 
are  purely  mythical.  Not  one  of  them  receives  worship,  unless 
it  be  Pradyumna,  the  reputed  son  of  Krishna  by  RukminI, 
and   usually  held  to  be  an   incarnation   of  Kama-deva,  god 

of  love. 

9.  Buddha.  The  adoption  of  Buddha  as  one  of  the  ten 
incarnations  of  Vishnu  appears  to  have  been  the  result  of  a 
wise  compromise  with  Buddhism  ;  the  Brahmans  asserting 
that  Vishnu  in  his  compassion  for  animals  descended  as  the 
sceptical  Buddha  that  he  might  bring  discredit  on  Vedic 
sacrifices  (see  Glta-govinda,  I.  13);  or,  according  to  another 
theory,  that  wicked  men  might  bring  destruction  on  them- 
selves by  accepting  Buddhism  and  denying  the  existence  of 
the  gods.  The  fact  was  that  the  Brahmans  appropriated 
Buddha  much  as  some  of  them  are  now  appropriating  Christ, 
and  making  Him  out  to  be  an  incarnation  of  Vishnu. 

10.  Kalki  or  Kalkin.  The  descent  of  Vishnu  in  this  cha- 
racter has  not  yet  taken  place.  Nor  is  he  to  appear  till  the 
close  of  the  fourth  or  Kali  age,  when  the  world  has  become 
wholly  depraved.  He  is  then  to  be  revealed  in  the  sky, 
seated  on  a  white  horse,  with  a  drawn  sword  blazing  like  a 
comet,  for  the  final  destruction  of  the  wicked,  for  the  re- 
demption of  the  good,  for  the  renovation  of  all  creation,  and 
the  restoration  of  the  age  of  purity  (Satya-yuga).  From  the 
fact  of  the  horse  playing  an  important  role  in  this  incar- 
nation, it  is  sometimes  called  Asvavatara.  Some  of  the 
degraded  classes  of  India  comfort  themselves  in  their  pre- 
sent depressed  condition  by  expecting  Kalki  to  appear  as 
their  future  deliverer  and  the  restorer  of  their  social  posi- 
tion. Indeed  it  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  a  belief  in  a 
coming  Redeemer  seems  to  exist  in  all  religions,  not  ex- 
cepting Buddhism  and  Muhammadanism^. 

Looking  more  closely  at  these   ten   special   incarnations, 

'  In  Buddhism  there  is  the  future  Buddha  ;  in  Islam  the  MahdT.    The 
succession  of  Buddhas  may  be  compared  to  that  of  Vishnu's  descents. 


Vaishnavism.      Te/i  Incaniatioiis.  1 1 5 

wc   may  obsci-ve  that    the   god  Vishnu,  in  conformity  with 
his  character  of  a  universal  '  Pervadcr,'  discharges  his  func- 
tions  in  his    first   three    descents   by  pervading   the   bodies 
of  animals.     It  is  remarkable,  too,  that  these  three  zoomor- 
phic  incarnations  all  have    reference   to    the    tradition   of  a 
general   deluge.      In   his   fourth    descent   Vishnu    takes   the 
form  of  a  being  half  animal,  half  man.     Possibly  this  com- 
bination may  be  intended  as  a  kind  of  intermediate  link,  to 
connect   the   deity   with   higher   forms.     From  half  a   man, 
the  transition  is  to  a  complete  man,  but  the  divine  essence 
on   passing  into  human   forms   commences  with   a  dwarf — 
the  smallest  type  of  humanity.   Thence  it  advances  to  mighty 
heroes,  sent  into  the  world  to  deliver  mankind  from  the  op- 
pression  of  tyrants  —  repi-esented   as    evil    demons  —  whose 
power  increases  with  the  increase  of  corruption  and  depravity 
during  the  four  ages.     The  eighth  is  the  highest  and  so  to 
speak  culminating  incarnation  ;  for  in  this  Krishna  is  believed 
to  be,  not  a  part  of  Vishnu's  essence,  but  a  complete  mani- 
festation of  Vishnu  himself.     The  ninth  may  be  passed  over 
as  a  mere  device  on  the  part  of  the  Brahmans  to  account  for 
the  existence  of  Buddhism.     The  tenth  and  final  incarnation, 
which  remains  to  be  revealed,  will  surpass  all  the  others  in 
importance.      In   it  evil  and   wickedness  are  to  be   entirely 
rooted  out,  and   the  age  of  purity  restored.     We  may  see 
in  this  connected   series  of  what  to  us  appear  exceedingly 
absurd  fancies  the  working  of  the   Hindu   idea   of   metem- 
psychosis.    Just  as  the  souls  of  men,  regarded  as  emanations 
from  the  Deity,  pass  into  stones,  plants,  and  animals,  or  rise 
to  the  bodies  of  higher  beings,  so  portions  of  the  essence  of 
Vishnu  pass  through  regular  stages  of  embodied  existence  for 
the  maintenance  of  the  order  of  the  universe. 

As  we  have  already  seen,  Vishnu's  essence  divided  itself 
into  male  and  female,  but  he  had  no  children  in  his  Non- 
avatara  condition,  as  Siva  had,  unless  Kama-deva,  god  of  love, 
said  to  have  been  his  mind-born  son  (afterwards  incarnate  in 

I  2 


ii6  VaisJinavism.     Division  into  Sects. 

Pradyumna),  be  so  regarded.  When  the  male  essence  de- 
scended as  Rama,  the  female  was  born  as  Rama's  faithful 
wife  Sita;  and  when  the  male  descended  as  Krishna,  the 
female  became  Krishna's  favourite  wife  Radha. 

We  now  proceed  to  give  a  description  of  the  more  im- 
portant Vaishnava  sects, — beginning  with  those  founded  by 
Ramanuja,  Madhva,  Vallabha,  and  (^aitanya ;  and  first  we 
may  direct  attention  to  some  points  in  which  they  all  agree. 

In  the  first  place,  it  must  be  understood  that  all  the  sects 
agree  in  maintaining,  at  least  theoretically,  that  devotion  to 
Vishnu  supersedes  all  distinctions  of  caste  (compare  p.  64). 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  however,  it  is  not  to  be  supposed  that 
a  Vaishnava  Brahman  ever  really  gives  up  his  claim  to 
superiority  over  the  inferior  classes. 

Next,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  all  the  Vaishnava  sects 
are  more  or  less  opposed  to  the  pure  non-duality  (advaita)  of 
Sahkarac'arya  (see  p.  ^^)  which  makes  the  spirit  of  man  iden- 
tical with  the  one  Spirit  of  the  Universe  (Atma,  Brahma). 

Further,  we  may  take  note  of  the  fact  that  the  bible  of 
all  worshippers  of  Vishnu  in  his  most  popular  manifesta- 
tion—  that  of  the  hero  Krishna,  with  his  favourite  wife 
Radha  —  consists  of  two  chief  books,  the  Bhagavata-purana 
and  the  Bhagavad-gita ;  and  that  those  who  pay  exclusive 
adoration  to  the  other  popular  manifestation  of  Vishnu — 
the  hero  Rama  —  also  acknowledge  two  special  bibles  in 
Valmlki's  Ramayana,  and  in  the  Ramayana  of  Tulsl-das. 
Undoubtedly  these  four  books  ought  to  find  a  prominent 
place  among  the  'Sacred  Books'  of  our  Indian  Empire. 

Then  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  all  agree  in  the  wor- 
ship of  existing  religious  teachers  who  are  supposed  to  be 
embodiments,  not  only  of  divine  wisdom,  but  of  the  very 
essence  of  divinity.  In  the  foremost  rank  must  always  come 
the  original  founder  of  each  particular  sect,  whose  title  is 
Acarya.  He  is  regarded  as  little  inferior  to  Krishna  him- 
self, and  may  even  be  identified  with  him.     As  to  the  living 


Vaishnavism.     Division  into  Sects.  1 1  7 

teacher  of  the  day,  if  not  elevated  to  equal  rank,  he  is  a 
greater  reality.  He  receives  homage  as  a  visible  and  tangible 
mediator  between  earth  and  heaven.  He  is  to  the  mass  of 
Vaishnavas  even  more  than  a  mediator  between  themselves 
and  God.  He  is  the  living  embodiment  of  the  entire  essence 
of  the  deity  (sarva-deva-mayah).  Nay,  he  is  still  more.  He 
is  the  present  God  whose  anger  is  to  be  deprecated  and  favour 
conciliated,  because  they  make  themselves  instantly  felt. 

Next,  all  the  Vaishnava  sects  agree,  as  we  have  seen 
(p.  61),  in  requiring  a  special  ceremony  of  initiation  (dlksha) 
into  their  communion,  accompanied  by  the  repetition  of  a 
formula  of  words,  significant  of  reverence  for  either  Krishna 
or  Rama,  such  as,  '  Reverence  to  great  Krishna'  (SrT  Krish- 
naya  namah),  '  Reverence  to  great  Rama'  (Sri  Ramaya  na- 
mah),  or  the  eight-syllabled  formula,  '  Great  Krishna  is  my 
refuge '(Sri  Krishnah  Saranam  mama). 

Children  are  admitted  to  the  religion  of  Vishnu  at  the 
age  of  three  or  four  years.  A  rosary  or  necklace  (kanthi) 
of  one  hundred  and  eight  beads \  usually  made  of  tulsi 
wood  (see  p.  67),  is  passed  round  their  necks  by  the  offici- 
ating priest  (Guru),  and  they  are  taught  the  use  of  one  of 
the  foregoing  formulas,  which  is  repeated  by  the  Guru,  very 
much  as  the  sacred  words  '  In  nomine  Patris,'  etc.  are  re- 
peated by  the  priest  at  the  Christian  rite  of  baptism. 

Then,  at  the  age  of  twelve  or  thirteen,  another  rite  is 
performed,  corresponding  to  our  confirmation.  With  the 
Vallabha  sect  it  is  called  the  'Dedication  rite'  (Samarpana); 
that  is,  the  consecration  of  body,  soul,  and  substance  (tan, 
man,  dhan)  to  Krishna ;  the  formula  taught  being  to  the 
following  effect  : — '  I  here  dedicate  to  the  holy  Krishna  my 
bodily  organs,  my  life,  my  inmost  soul,  and  its  faculties, 
with   my  wife,  my  house,   my  children,  with  all  the  wealth 


'  This  is  because  there  are  one  hundred  and  eight  chief  names  of 
Krishna  as  the  Supreme  Being. 


1 1 S  Vaishnavism.     Division  into  Sects. 

I  may  acquire  here  or  hereafter,  and  my  own  self.  O 
Krishna,  I  am  thy  servant.'  These  ceremonies  may,  in  the 
case  of  all  but  Brahmans,  take  the  place  of  the  initiatory  rite 
of  orthodox  Brahmanism,  performed  by  investiture  with  the 
sacred  thread  (to  be  afterwards  described). 

Another  general  characteristic  of  all  the  Vaishnava  sects 
is  tenderness  towards  animal  life.  In  this  respect  Vaish- 
navism contrasts  favourably  with  Saivism.  No  life  must  be 
taken  by  a  worshipper  of  Vishnu,  not  even  that  of  a  minute 
insect,  and  not  even  for  sacrifice  to  a  deity  (as,  for  example, 
to  Kali),  and  least  of  all  must  one's  own  life  be  taken. 
It  is  usual  for  missionaries  to  speak  with  horror  of  the  self- 
immolation  alleged  to  take  place  under  the  Car  of  Jagan- 
nath  (Krishna).  But  if  deaths  occur,  they  must  be  acci- 
dental, as  self-destruction  is  wholly  opposed  both  to  the 
letter  and  spirit  of  the  Vaishnava  religion. 

Then,  of  course,  the  several  sects  agree  in  enjoining  the 
use  of  the  perpendicular  coloured  marks  on  the  forehead, 
called  tjrdhva-pundra,  described  at  p.  6^.  They  are  sup- 
posed to  denote  the  impress  of  either  one  or  both  the  feet 
of  Vishnu,  and  to  possess  great  efficacy  in  shielding  from 
evil  influences  and  delivering  from  sin.  In  addition  to  these 
frontal  marks,  most  of  the  sects  brand  the  breast  and  arms 
with  the  circular  symbol  and  conch-shell  of  Vishnu. 

Finally,  all  the  sects  believe  that  every  faithful  and  vir- 
tuous worshipper  of  Vishnu  is  transported  to  his  heaven, 
called  Vaikuntha,  or  to  that  of  Krishna,  called  Goloka  (in- 
stead of  to  the  temporary  Svarga  or  paradise  of  orthodox 
Brahmanism),  and  that  when  once  admitted  there,  he  is  not 
liable  to  be  born  again  on  earth.  There,  according  to  the 
merit  of  his  works,  he  may  enjoy  any  of  the  three  conditions 
of  bliss,  Salokya,  SamTpya,  or  Sarupya,  already  described  at 
p.  41.  Whether  a  Vaishnava  may  be  supposed  capable  of 
achieving  the  highest  condition  of  beatification— conscious 
absorption    into   the   divine    essence   (Sayujya) — depends    of 


Vaishnavism.      The  Ramanvja  Sect.  1 1 9 

course  on  the  philosophical  views  of  the  sect  to  which  he 
belongs  (see  p.  95).  One  point  requires  to  be  well  under- 
stood in  comparing  the  Vaishnava  religion  with  Christianity — 
namely,  that  God,  with  Hindu  Theists,  can  only  be  propi- 
tiated by  works.  He  may  be  called  merciful,  but  He  only 
shows  mercy  to  those  who  deserve  it  by  their  actions,  and 
if  He  accepts  faith  it  is  only  because  this  also  is  a  meritorious 
act.  Every  man's  hope  of  heaven  depends  on  his  own  self- 
righteousness  and  on  the  amount  of  merit  he  has  been  able  to 
accumulate  during  life.  We  must  also  bear  in  mind  that 
although  Vishnu  is  supposed  to  be  a  Creator  as  well  as  a 
Saviour,  yet  he  is  not  so  in  the  Christian  sense  of  the  word  ; 
for  all  the  sects  believe  in  some  material  cause  (upadana) — 
some  eternal  substance  out  of  which  the  Universe  is  formed. 

Let  us  now  advert  to  the  principal  points  of  difference 
between  the  more  conspicuous  Vaishnava  sects,  beginning 
with  that  founded  by  the  celebrated  reformer,  Ramanuja. 

Sect  founded  by  Ravidnuj a. 

Ramanuja,  or  as  he  is  often  called  Ramanujac'arya,  was 
born  about  the  twelfth  century  at  Strl  (Sri)  Parambattur, 
a  town  about  twenty-six  miles  west  of  Madras.  He  is 
known  to  have  studied  and  taught  at  Kanc^I-puram  (ConjI- 
varam),  and  to  have  resided  towards  the  end  of  his  life  at 
Sri-Rangam,  on  the  river  KaverT,  near  Trichinopoly,  where 
for  many  years  he  worshipped  Vishnu  in  his  character  of 
Srlrahga-nath.  The  distinctive  point  of  his  teaching,  accord- 
ing to  the  Sarva-darsana-sarigraha  (translated  by  Professors 
Cowell  and  Gough),  was  his  assertion  of  the  existence  of 
a  triad  of  principles  (padartha-tritayam), — namely,  i.  the 
Supreme  Being  (Isvara)  ;  2.  soul  (cit) ;  and  3.  non-soul  (a-cit). 
Vishnu  is  the  Supreme  Being ;  individual  spirits  are  souls  ; 
the  visible  world  (drisyam)  is  non-soul.  All  three  principles 
have  an  eternal  existence  distinct  from  each  other. 


120  Vaishnavism.      The  Rarnannja  Sect. 

This  doctrine  was  clearly  antagonistic  to  that  of  the  great 
Brahmanical  revivalist  Sankara,  who  lived  three  or  four  cen- 
turies before  (see  p.  ^^.  According  to  Sankara,  as  we  have 
seen,  the  separate  existence  of  the  spirit  of  man,  as  distinct 
from  the  one  Universal  Spirit,  was  only  illusory.  Illusion 
(Maya),  too — existing  from  all  eternity — was  the  only  mate- 
rial or  substantial  cause  (upadana-karana)  of  the  external 
world,  though  this  eternally  creative  Illusion  was  powerless 
to  create  the  world  except  in  union  with  the  one  Spirit. 
Ramanuja,  on  the  other  hand,  contended  that  the  souls  or 
spirits  of  men  are  truly,  essentially,  and  eternally  distinct  and 
different  from  the  one  Universal  Spirit.  With  regard  to  the 
external  world  his  views  appear  to  have  been  less  dualistic 
than  those  of  the  Sankhya,  and  even  than  those  of  the 
Vedanta,  for  in  the  former  we  have  Prakriti  and  in  the  latter 
Maya,  as  the  material  cause  (upadana)  out  of  which  the 
Universe  was  created  ;  whereas  Ramanuja  held  that  God  is 
himself  both  the  creator  (Karta)  of  the  world  and  the 
substantial  cause  or  material  out  of  which  it  is  formed.  He 
appears,  too,  to  have  asserted  that  the  world  and  God  stand 
towards  each  other  in  the  relation  of  body  and  soul,  and 
that  body  and  soul  are  virtually  one.  It  will  be  found,  in 
fact,  that  the  doctrine  'ex  nihilo  nihil  fit'  in  some  form  or 
other  holds  good  in  every  religious  system  which  India  has. 
produced  independently  of  Christian  influences. 

In  support  of  the  doctrine  that  the  spirits  of  men  are 
really  and  eternally  distinct  from  the  one  Universal  Spirit 
he  appealed  to  a  passage  in  the  Mundaka  Upanishad,  which 
rests  on  a  well-known  text  of  the  Rig-veda  (I.  164-20) : 
'Two  birds  — the  Supreme  and  Individual  Souls  — always 
united,  of  the  same  name,  occupy  the  same  tree  (abide  in 
the  same  body).  One  of  them  (the  Individual  Soul)  enjoys 
the  fruit  of  the  fig  (or  consequence  of  acts),  the  other  looks 
on  as  a  witness.' 

Nevertheless  Ramanuja  admitted    the   dependence  of  the 


Vaishnavis})i.      The  Rauianuja  Sect.  1 2 1 

human  soul  on  the  divine,  and  urged  the  duty  of  striving 
after  complete,  though  conscious,  union  with  the  Supreme — ■ 
identified  with  Vishnu  :— '  Cut  is  the  knot  of  man's  heart, 
solved  are  all  his  doubts,  ended  are  all  his  works,  when  he 
has  beheld  the  Supreme  Being ^' 

A  good  account  of  Ramanuja's  opinions  is  given  by  Dr.  K. 
M.  Banerjea  in  his  Dialogues  on  Hindu  Philosophy.  The 
account  is  founded  on  extracts  taken  from  the  writings  of 
one  of  Ramanuja's  disciples,  and  from  Ramanuja's  own  work 
on  the  Vcdanta-sutras  (called  Sariraka-bhashya). 

We  may  suppose  Ramanuja  himself  to  be  speaking  as 
follows  : — 

'  All  the  Sastras  tell  us  of  two  principles— knowledge  and 
ignorance,  virtue  and  vice,  truth  and  falsehood.  Thus  we 
see  pairs  everywhere,  and  God  and  the  human  soul  are  also 
so.  How  can  they  be  one?  I  am  sometimes  happy,  some- 
times miserable.  He,  the  Spirit,  is  always  happy.  Such  is 
the  discrimination.  How  then  can  two  distinct  substances 
be  identical  ?  He  is  an  eternal  Light,  without  anything  to 
obscure  it — pure,  the  one  superintendent  of  the  world.  But 
the  human  soul  is  not  so.  Thus  a  thunder-bolt  falls  on 
the  tree  of  no-distinction.  How  canst  thou^  oh  slow  of 
thought,  say,  I  am  He,  who  has  established  this  immense 
sphere  of  the  universe  in  its  fulness?  Consider  thine  own 
capacities  with  a  candid  mind.  By  the  mercy  of  the  Most 
High  a  little  understanding  has  been  committed  to  thee. 
It  is  not  for  thee,  therefore,  O  perverse  one,  to  say,  I  am 
God.  All  the  qualities  of  sovereignty  and  activity  are  eter- 
nally God's.  He  is  therefore  a  Being  endowed  with  qualities 
(saguna).  How  can  He  be  devoid  of  qualities  (nirguna)  ? 
Why,  again,   should    this   useless  illusion  be  exercised  ?     If 


^  This  is  given  in  the  Sarva-darsana-sangraha  as  one  of  R.amanuja's 
precepts.  Compare  a  similar  precept  at  the  end  of  the  Kathopanishad. 
I  heard  an  excellent  sermon  on  this  text  dehvered  by  Professor  Bhan- 
darkar  in  the  house  of  prayer  of  the  Prarthana-Samaj  in  Bombay. 


1 2  2  Vais/inavism.      The  Rdmannja  Sect. 

you  say,  as  a  sport — why  should  a  being  of  unbounded  joy 
engage  in  sport?  To  say  that  God  has  projected  an  illusion 
for  deluding  His  creatures,  or  that,  being  essentially  devoid 
of  qualities  (nirguna).  He  becomes  possessed  of  qualities 
and  active  under  the  influence  of  illusion  (maya),  is  equally 
opposed  to  godliness.  You  cannot,  if  you  believe  Him  to 
be  all  truth,  allow  the  possibility  of  His  projecting  a 
deceptive  spectacle.  Nor  can  you,  if  you  believe  Him  to 
be  all  knowledge  and  all  power,  assent  to  the  theory  of 
His  creating  anything  under  the  influence  of  avidya,  or 
ignorance.' 

Yet,  notwithstanding  the  manifestly  dualistic  teaching  of 
Ramanuja  in  regard  to  the  Supreme  and  human  soul,  he 
is  usually  credited  with  a  qualified  acquiescence  in  the  Ad- 
vaita  doctrine  of  Sahkara.  According  to  some,  in  fact,  he 
merely  propounded  a  new  view  of  the  Vedanta  non-duality 
(a-dvaita)  doctrine,  giving  it  that  peculiar  interpretation 
which  is  usually  called  'qualified  non-duality'  (visishtadvaita). 
I  found  that  no  adherent  of  the  Ramanuja  system  in  India 
was  able  to  explain  this  peculiar  view  satisfactorily.  It 
is,  however,  supported  by  a  passage  in  the  Sarva-darsana- 
sarigraha,  where  it  is  stated  that  Ramanuja's  teaching,  re- 
garded from  different  points  of  view,  was  open  to  the  charge 
of  admitting  the  three  ideas  of  unity,  duality,  and  plurality. 
Unity,  it  alleges,  was  admitted  by  him  in  saying  that  all 
individual  spirits  and  visible  forms  constitute  the  body  of 
the  one  Supreme  Spirit.  Duality  was  admitted  in  saying 
that  the  spirit  of  God  and  man  are  distinct.  Plurality  was 
admitted  in  saying  that  the  Spirit  of  God,  the  spirit  of  man 
which  is  multitudinous,  and  the  visible  world  are  distinct. 
(Cowell  and  Gough's  translation,  pp.  ']'3^,  y^.)  The  first  of 
these  admissions  is  said  to  amount  to  qualified  unity,  and  is 
therefore  styled  Visishtadvaita. 

Ramanuja  also  held  that  at  great  periodical  dissolutions 
of  the  Universe  human  souls  and  the  world  are  re-absorbed 


Vaishnavism.      The  Rcundiutja  Seci.  123 

into  God,  but  without  losing  their  own  separate  identity. 
In  the  Tattva-muktavali  (translated  in  Dr.  Bancrjea's  9th 
Dialogue)  we  find  Ramanuja  represented  as  saying,  '  Many 
flavours  of  trees  there  are  in  honey,  and  they  are  separable 
from  it.  How  otherwise  could  it  remove  the  three-fold 
disorders  ?  Souls,  in  like  manner,  are  absorbed  in  the  Lord 
at  the  dissolution  of  all  things,  but  are  not  unified  with 
Him,  for  they  are  again  separated  at  the  creation.  As 
there  is  a  difference  between  rivers  and  the  sea,  between 
sweet  and  salt  waters,  so  is  there  a  difference  between  God 
and  souls,  because  of  their  characteristic  distinctions.  Rivers, 
when  joined  with  the  sea,  are  not  altogether  unified  with  it, 
though  they  appear  inseparable.  There  is  a  real  difference 
between  salt  and  sweet  waters.  Even  milk,  when  mixed 
with  milk,  and  water  with  water,  do  not  obtain  unification, 
merely  because  they  are  supposed  to  be  unified.  Neither 
do  souls,  when  absorbed  in  the  Supreme  Being,  obtain  iden- 
tity with  Him\' 

With  regard  to  the  various  manifestations  of  the  Supreme 
Being  and  the  duty  of  worshipping  Him,  Ramanuja  held 
that  God  is  present  among  His  votaries  on  earth  in  five 
ways:  1.  in  images;  2.  in  divine  embodiments  (such  as 
Rama) ;  3.  in  full  manifestations  (such  as  Krishna) ;  4.  in 
the  subtle  (siikshma)  all-pervading  spirit ;  5-  hi  the  internal 
Spirit  controlling  the  human  soul  (antaryamin).  The 
worshipper  may  be  incapable  of  rising  at  once  to  any  high 
act  of  adoration;  in  which  case  he  must  begin  by  adoring 
Vishnu  as  manifested  in  the  first  of  these  five  ways — that 
is  to  say,  in  images  and  idols.  He  may  afterwards  ascend 
by  regular  steps  through  the  other  four  modes  of  worship 
till  he  reaches  the  fifth.  If  he  ever  succeeds  in  attaining 
to  this  highest  stage  and  so  becomes  capable  of  worshipping 

^  The  twenty-ninth  Sutra  of  Santlilya  (translated  by  Prof.  E.  B.  Cowell) 
mentions  a  sage  Kasyapa  who  appears  to  have  held  doctrines  coinciding 
to  a  certain  extent  with  those  of  Ramanuja. 


124  Vais/inavism.     The  Ramamija  Sect. 

the  internal  Spirit  enshrined  in  his  own  heart,  Vishnu 
identified  with  that  Spirit  raises  him  to  his  own  heaven 
Vaikuntha,  whence  there  is  no  return  to  human  existence, 
and  where  he  enjoys  the  exquisite  bliss  of  conscious  assimi- 
lation to  the  God  whom  he  has  adored  on  earth,  and  even 
of  conscious  absorption  into  that  God^.  Possibly  this  theory 
of  conscious  absorption  may  constitute  another  reason  for 
attributing  the  doctrine  called  '  qualified  non-duality'  (visishta- 
dvaita)  to  Ramilnuja.  Nevertheless  the  impression  left  on 
the  mind  by  the  account  of  his  system  in  the  Sarva-darsana- 
sarigraha  is  that  Ramanuja  was  even  more  opposed  to  the 
doctrine  of  unity  in  regard  to  the  divine  and  human  souls 
than  his  brother  sectarian  Madhva.  This  impression  is  borne 
out  by  the  fact  that  his  system  is  treated  of  before  that  of 
Madhva,  and  so  placed  lower  down  in  that  ascending  scale 
which  is  supposed  to  culminate  in  the  orthodox  Advaita. 
Probably  the  real  reason  for  its  being  so  placed  is  that  he 
asserts  three  principles — the  Spirit  of  God,  the  spirit  of  man, 
and  the  visible  world— as  his  first  axiom,  whereas  Madhva 
only  asserts  two  (see  p.  131). 

After  Ramanuja's  death,  his  numerous  followers  corrupted 
his  teaching  in  the  usual  manner,  introducing  doctrines 
and  practices  which  the  founder  of  the  sect  had  not  en- 
joined and  would  not  have  sanctioned.  Then,  about  six 
hundred  years  ago,  a  learned  Brahman  of  KanjTvaram, 
named  Vedantacarya,  put  himself  forward  as  a  reformer, 
giving  out  that  he  was  commissioned  by  the  god  Vishnu 
himself  to  purify  the  faith — to  sweep  away  corrupt  incrusta- 
tions, and  restore  the  doctrines  of  the  original  founder.  These 
doctrines,  he  affirmed,  had  been  more  carefully  preserved 
by  the  Northern  Brahmans  than  by  those  in  the  South. 
Hence  arose  irreconcilable  differences  of  opinion,  which 
resulted   in  two  great  antagonistic  parties  of  Ramanujas — 

*  See  Sarva-darsana-sangraha  (Prof.  A.  E.  Cough's  translation  of  the 
Ramanuja  system),  p.  79. 


Vaishnavis.ni.      The  Ramaiutja  Sect.  125 

one  called  the  northern  school,  Vada-galai  (for  Vada-kalai, 
Sanskrit  kala),  the  other  the  southern  school,  Ten-galai  (for 
Ten-kalaP).  They  are  far  more  opposed  to  each  other  than 
both  parties  are  to  Saivas.  The  northern  school  accept  the 
Sanskrit  Veda.  The  southern  have  compiled  a  Veda  of 
their  own,  called  'the  four  thousand  verses'  (Nalayira),  writ- 
ten in  Tamil,  and  held  to  be  older  than  the  Sanskrit  Veda, 
but  really  based  on  its  Upanishad  portion.  In  all  their 
worship  they  repeat  selections  from  these  Tamil  verses. 

An  important  dififerencc  of  doctrine,  caused  by  different 
views  of  the  nature  of  the  soul's  dependence  on  Vishnu, 
separates  the  two  parties.  The  view  taken  by  the  Vada-galais 
corresponds,  in  a  manner,  to  the  Arminian  doctrine  of  '  free- 
will.' The  soul,  say  they,  lays  hold  of  the  Supreme  Being 
by  its  own  will,  act,  and  effort,  just  as  the  young  monkey 
clings  to  its  mother.  This  is  called  the  monkey-theory 
(markata-nyaya).  The  view  of  the  Ten-galais  is  a  counter- 
part of  that  of  the  Calvinists.  It  is  technically  styled 
'the  cat-hold  theory'  (marjara-nyaya).  The  human  soul, 
they  argue,  remains  passive  and  helpless  until  acted  on  by 
the  Supreme  Spirit,  just  as  the  kitten  remains  passive  and 
helpless  until  seized  and  transported,  nolens  volens,  from 
place  to  place  by  the  mother-cat. 

Again,  the  Ten-galais  maintain  that  the  Sakti  or  wife  of 
Vishnu  is  a  created  and  finite  being,  though  divine,  and 
that  she  acts  as  a  mediator  or  minister  (purusha-kara),  not 
as  an  equal  channel  of  salvation  ;  whereas  the  Vada-galais 
regard  her  as,  like  her  consort,  infinite,  and  uncreated,  and 
equally  to  be  worshipped  as  a  channel  or  means  (upaya)  by 
which  salvation   may  be  attained.     I  heard  it  remarked  by 

'  The  Satani  branch  of  the  Ramanujas  is  not  a  separate  school.  It 
consists  of  a  body  of  Siidras  who  are  opposed  to  Brahmanical  usages. 
It  represents,  in  fact,  the  low-caste  or  out-caste  converts  to  Vaishnavism. 
It  is  among  the  Ramanuja  Vaishnavas  what  the  Lingait  sect  is  among 
Saivas  (see  p.  88). 


126  Vaishnavism.      The  Ramanuja  Sect. 

a  learned  Ten-galai  Brahman  that  no  educated  men  beheve 
Vishnu  to  be  really  married.  '  What  most  Ten-galais  hold,' 
he  said,  '  is  that  Lakshml  is  an  ideal  personification  of  the 
deity's  more  feminine  attributes,  such  as  those  of  mercy, 
love,  and  compassion ;  while  some  philosophers  contend 
that  the  Hindu  gods  are  only  represented  with  wives  to 
typify  the  mystical  union  of  the  two  eternal  principles, 
spirit  and  matter  for  the  production  of  the  Universe.  The 
central  red  mark,  therefore,  is,  in  the  one  case^  the  mere  ex- 
pression of  trust  in  God's  mercy;  in  the  other,  of  belief  in 
the  great  mystery  of  creation  and  re-creation.' 

No  Arminians  and  Calvinists  have  ever  fought  more  ran- 
corously  over  their  attempts  to  solve  insoluble  difficulties 
than  have  Vada-galais  and  Ten-galais  over  their  struggles 
to  secure  the  ascendency  of  their  own  theological  opinions. 
The  fight  has  ended  in  a  drawn  battle.  The  two  opposite 
parties,  exhausted  with  their  profitless  logomachy  and  use- 
less strivings  after  an  impossible  unity  of  opinion,  have 
agreed  to  differ  in  abstruse  points  of  doctrine. 

Their  disputes  are  now  chiefly  confined  to  externals  of 
the  most  trivial  kind.  It  is  the  old  story  repeated.  The 
Sibboleths  are  intolerant  of  the  Shibboleths.  The  Vada- 
galais  contend  that  the  frontal  mark  of  the  sect  ought  to 
represent  the  impress  of  the  right  foot  of  Vishnu  (the  sup- 
posed source  of  the  divine  Ganges),  while  the  Ten-galais 
maintain  that  equal  reverence  is  due  to  both  the  god's  feet. 
It  is  certainly  convenient  from  a  social  point  of  view  that  a 
man's  religious  idiosyncrasies  should  be  stamped  upon  his 
forehead.  Accordingly,  the  two  religious  parties  are  most 
particular  about  their  frontal  emblems,  the  Vada-galais 
making  a  simple  white  line  between  the  eyes,  curved  to 
represent  the  sole  of  one  foot,  with  a  central  red  mark  em- 
blematical of  Lakshml  terminating  at  the  bridge ;  while  the 
Ten-galais  employ  a  more  complicated  device  symbolical  of 
both   feet,  which  are  supposed  to   rest   on  a  lotus   throne, 


I 


VaishnavisDi.      The  Ra7}iannja  Sect.  127 

denoted  by  a  white  line  drawn  half  down  the  nose.  The 
complete  Ten-galai  symbol  has  the  appearance  of  a  trident, 
the  two  outer  prongs  (painted  with  white  earth)  standing 
for  Vishnu's  two  feet,  the  middle  (painted  red  or  yellow)  for 
his  consort,  LakshmT,  and  the  handle  (or  white  line  down 
the  nose)  representing  the  lotus  throne.  The  worst  quarrels 
between  the  two  divisions  of  the  sect  arise  from  disputes 
as  to  which  mark  is  to  be  impressed  on  the  images  wor- 
shipped in  the  Vaishnava  temples,  to  which  all  Ramanujas 
resort  indifferently.  Tedious  and  expensive  law-suits  are 
often  the  result. 

Both  sects,  however,  agree  in  stamping  or  branding  the 
same  emblems  of  Vishnu  —  the  discus,  the  conch-shell,  the 
club,  and  the  lotus,  generally  the  former  two  —  on  their 
breasts  and  arms. 

Another  point  which  distinguishes  the  Ten-galais  is  that 
they  prohibit  their  widows  from  shaving  their  heads.  Every 
married  woman  in  India  rejoices  in  long,  fine  hair,  which 
she  is  careful  to  preserve  intact.  In  the  case  of  men,  regular 
shaving  is  not  only  a  universal  custom,  it  is  a  religious  duty. 
But  for  women  to  be  deprived  of  any  portion  of  their  hair 
is  a  shame.  A  shorn  female  head  is  throughout  India  the 
chief  mark  of  widowhood.  Every  widow,  though  a  mere 
child,  is  compelled  to  submit  her  growing  locks  periodically 
to  the  family  barber.  It  is,  therefore,  a  singular  circum- 
stance—  quite  unique  in  India — that  the  Ten-galai  widows 
are  exempted  from  all  obligation  to  dishonour  their  heads 
in  this  manner^  (compare  I  Cor.  xi.  5). 

Again,  a  peculiarity  common  to  both  Ramanuja  sects  is 
the  strict  privacy  with  which  they  eat  and  even  prepare  their 
meals.     No  Indians  like  to  be  looked  at  while  eating.    They 

^  The  Ten-galais  quote  a  verse  of  Vriddha-Manu,  which  declares  that 
if  any  woman,  whether  unmarried  or  widowed,  shave  her  head,  she  will 
be  condemned  to  dwell  in  the  hell  called  Raurava  for  one  thousand  times 
ten  million  ages. 


1 28  Vaishnavis7?i.      The  Ramamija  Sect. 

are  firm  believers  in  the  evil  influence  of  the  human  eye 
(dfishti-dosha).  The  preparation  of  food  is  with  high-caste 
natives  an  affair  of  equal  secrecy.  We  Europeans  can  scarcely 
understand  the  extent  to  which  culinary  operations  may 
be  associated  with  religion.  The  kitchen  in  every  Indian 
household  is  a  kind  of  sanctuary  or  holy  ground  ;  almost 
as  hallowed  as  the  room  dedicated  to  the  family  gods.  No 
unprivileged  person  must  dare  to  intrude  within  this  sacred 
enclosure.  The  mere  glance  of  a  man  of  inferior  caste  makes 
the  greatest  delicacies  uneatable,  and  if  such  a  glance  hap- 
pens to  fall  on  the  family  supplies  during  the  cooking  opera- 
tions, when  the  ceremonial  purity  of  the  water  used^  is  a 
matter  of  almost  life  or  death  to  every  member  of  the 
household,  the  whole  repast  has  to  be  thrown  away  as  if 
poisoned.  The  family  is  for  that  day  dinnerless.  Food 
thus  contaminated  would,  if  eaten,  communicate  a  taint  to 
the  souls  as  well  as  bodies  of  the  eaters  —  a  taint  which 
could  only  be  removed  by  long  and  painful  expiation.  In 
travelling  over  every  part  of  India,  and  diligently  striving 
to  note  the  habits  of  the  natives  in  every  circumstance  of 
their  daily  life,  I  never  once  saw  a  single  Hindu,  except  of 
the  lowest  caste,  either  preparing  or  eating  cooked  food  of 
any  kind.  The  Ramanujas  carry  these  ideas  to  an  extra- 
vagant extreme.  They  carefully  lock  the  doors  of  their 
kitchens  and  protect  their  culinary  and  prandial  operations 
from  the  gaze  of  even  high- caste  Brahmans  of  tribes  and 
sects  different  from  their  own. 

Each  of  the  present  chiefs  (adaryas)  of  the  two  Rama- 
nuja  sects  lays  claim  to  be  the  true  descendant  of  the 
founder  himself  in  regular,  unbroken  succession.     The  Vada- 


'  Caste-rules  are  now  an  essential  part  of  religion,  but  there  is  reason 
to  believe  that  they  were  once  merely  matters  of  social  convenience. 
Many  of  them  probably  originated  in  the  need  of  sanitary  precautions. 
Nothing  is  so  necessary  for  the  preservation  of  health  in  India  as  atten- 
tion to  the  purity  of  water. 


Vaishnavisvi.      TIic  Rdniamija  Sect.  1 29 

galai  successor  (named  Ahobala)  lives  at  a  monastery  (Matha) 
in  the  Kurnool  district.  The  Tcn-galai  successor  (named 
Vanamamala)  lives  in  the  Tinnevelly  district.  Though  they 
preside  over  monasteries,  they  are  both  married  ;  whereas 
the  successors  of  the  orthodox  Brfdiman  Sahkara,  who  hve 
at  Srihgeri  in  Mysore,  are  always  celibates.  The  two  Rama- 
nuja  Acaryas,  however,  are  strict  Ayengar  Brahmans,  and 
will  probably  in  their  old  age  become  Sannyasis,  according 
to  the  teaching  of  the  ancient  lawgiver  Manu,  who  ordained 
that  the  attainment  of  great  nearness  to  the  Supreme  Being 
is  incompatible  with  the  discharge  of  household  duties,  and 
that  every  Brahman  as  he  advances  in  life  is  bound  to  give 
up  all  family  ties. 

Each  Acarya  makes  a  periodical  visitation  of  his  diocese, 
and  holds  a  kind  of  confirmation  in  every  large  town.  That 
is  to  say,  every  child  or  young  person  who  has  been  initiated 
is  brought  before  him  to  be  branded  or  stamped  as  a  true 
follower  of  Vishnu.  Boys  may  be  branded  at  the  age  of 
seven  or  upwards  ;  girls  only  after  their  marriage.  A  sacred 
fire  is  kindled,  two  golden  instruments  are  heated,  and  the 
symbols  of  the  wheel-shaped  discus  and  conch-shell  of  Vishnu 
are  impressed  on  the  breast,  arms,  or  other  parts  of  the 
body.  I  was  informed  by  an  intelligent  Brahman  at  Ma- 
dura that  the  Acarya  or  chief  of  the  sect  from  the  Aho- 
bala Matha  visits  that  town  once  every  eight  or  ten  years, 
when  as  many  young  persons  as  possible  take  the  oppor- 
tunity of  being  branded.  Even  those  who  have  been  in- 
vested with  the  Brfdimanical  thread  require  the  addition  of 
the  Vaishnava  brand.  The  Acarya  is  put  to  no  expense. 
He  is  the  guest  of  some  well-to-do  Brahman  in  the  town, 
and  reaps  a  rich  harvest  of  fees. 

We  pass  on  to  the  second  great  Vaishnava  sect — that 
founded  by  Madhva — whose  adherents  are  called  Madhvas. 
They  are  chiefly  found  in  Southern  India. 


K 


i;.o 


Vaishnavism.     Madhva  Sect. 


Sect  founded  by  Madhva. 

The  next  most  important  of  the  Vaishnava  sects  is  that  of 
the  Mildhvas.  They  were  founded  by  a  Kanarese  Brahman 
named  Madhva — otherwise  called  Ananda-tlrtha — said  to 
have  been  born  about  the  year  1200  of  our  era,  at  a  place 
called  UdupT,  on  the  western  coast  (sixty  miles  north  of 
Mangalore),  and  to  have  been  educated  in  a  convent  at 
Anantesvar.  His  doctrine  is  commonly  called  Duality 
(Dvaita),  and  is  well  known  for  the  intensity  of  its  opposition 
to  the  Non-duality  (Advaita)  doctrine  of  the  great  Vedantist 
Saiikaracarya.  The  school  he  founded  is  sometimes  called 
Purna-prajna — a  name  also  applied  to  its  founder. 

In  fact  the  teaching  of  Madhva  is  by  some  thought  to  owe 
no  little  of  its  distinctive  character  to  the  influence  of  Chris- 
tianity, which  had  made  itself  felt  in  the  South  of  India  before 
the  thirteenth  century.  No  evidence  whatever  is  forthcoming 
on  this  subject.  Nor  has  his  system  really  much  common 
ground  with  Christianity.  Nor  would  it  be  easy  to  give  a 
thoroughly  exhaustive  account  of  his  doctrines  ^  Still  their 
general  drift  may  be  correctly  gathered  from  the  Sarva-dar- 
sana-sahgraha,  though  the  points  in  which  he  differs  from 
Ramanuja  are  rather  obscurely  stated  in  that  work. 

Of  course  Madhva,  like  Ramanuja,  taught  that  there  was 
only  one  God,  whose  principal  name  was  Vishnu  (or  Hari), 
and  who  was  the  one  eternal  Supreme  Being,  all  other  gods 
being  subject  to  the  law  of  universal  periodical  dissolution. 

'  Brahma,  Siva,  and  the  greatest  of  the  gods  decay  with  the 
decay  of  their  bodies  ;  greater  than  these  is  the  undecaying 
Hari.'  (Professor  Cough's  translation.) 

Perhaps  the  chief  distinctive  feature  of  Madhva's  teaching 

'  I  repeatedly  questioned  some  of  the  more  intelligent  followers  of 
iMadhva  I  met  in  the  South  of  India  as  to  the  exact  distinction  between 
his  views  and  those  of  Ramanuja,  but  no  one  was  able  to  give  me 
any  very  satisfactory  reply. 


Vaishnavism.     Aladhva  Sect.  131 

was  that  his  first  axiom  asserted  categorically  that  there 
are  two  separate  eternal  principles  (instead  of  three,  as 
asserted  by  Ramanuja,  p.  119),  and  that  these  two  are  related 
as  independent  and  dependent,  as  master  and  servant,  as  king 
and  subject.  The  one  is  the  independent  prini^lple,  God 
(identified  with  Vishnu),  the  other  is  the  dependent  principle 
consisting  of  the  human  soul,  or  rather  souls,  for  they  are 
innumerable. 

It  was  Madhva's  unqualified  denial  of  the  unity  of  the 
Supreme  and  human  spirits  which  made  him  the  opponent 
of  the  followers  of  Saiikara. 

The  Vedantists  maintained,  as  we  have  seen,  that  the  dif- 
ference between  one  thing  and  another  and  between  one  soul 
and  another  was  wholly  illusory  and  unreal.  Madhva  affirmed 
that  a  real  and  inextinguishable  duality  was  to  be  proved  both 
by  perception  and  by  inference  K 

'  The  Supreme  Lord,'  said  Madhva,  '  differs  from  the  in- 
dividual soul  because  he  is  the  object  of  its  obedience.  A 
subject  who  obeys  a  king  differs  from  that  king.  In  their 
eager  desire  to  be  one  with  the  Supreme  Being,  the  followers 
of  Sankara  lay  claim  to  the  glory  of  his  excellence.  This  is  a 
mere  mirage.  A  man  with  his  tongue  cut  off  might  as  well 
attempt  to  enjoy  a  large  plantain.' 

Again,  according  to  Madhva  the  Vedic  text,  '  This  is  Self — 
That  art  thou,'  points  to  similarity,  not  identity. 

'  Like  a  bird  and  the  string ;  like  the  juices  of  various  trees; 
like  rivers  and  the  sea  ;  like  fresh  and  salt  water ;  like  a 
robber  and  the  robbed  ;  like  a  man  and  his  energy ;  so  are 
soul  and  the  Lord  diverse  and  for  ever  different'  (Translation.) 

Nor  have  these  two  principles  a  qualified  unity  comparable 
to  the  union  of  soul  and  body,  as  affirmed  by  Ramanuja. 
They  are  absolutely  distinct.  With  regard  to  the  visible 
world,  he  taught  that  its  elements  existed   eternally  in  the 

'  See  pp.  88,  90  of  Cowell  and  Cough's  '  Sarva-darsana-sangraha.' 

K  2 


132  Vaishnavism.     Madhva  Sect. 

Supreme  Being,  and  were  only  created  by  Him  in  the  sense 
of  being  shaped,  ordered,  and  arranged  by  His  power  and  will. 
Practically  he  seems  to  have  asserted  three  principles  quite  as 
plainly  as  Ramanuja  did  ;  for  his  doctrine  was  that  when  once 
the  worldTiad  emanated  from  the  Supreme  essence  it  remained 
a  distinct  entity  to  all  eternity.  '  There  is  a  difference,'  he 
affirmed,  '  between  human  souls  and  God,  and  a  difference  be- 
tween the  insentient  world  (jada)  and  God.'  Probably,  like 
Bishop  Berkeley,  he  saw  the  difficulty  of  proving  the  existence 
of  matter  externally  to  the  mind,  and  therefore  contented 
himself  with  asserting  two  distinct  principles,  God  and  the 
human  soul.  In  short,  his  dogma  was  that  as  the  visible 
world  emanated  from  God  it  was  not  to  be  distinguished, 
as  an  original  principle,  from  God,  and  was  not  even  as  distinct 
as  soul  and  body,  though  when  once  produced  it  remained  as 
distinct  from  its  Producer  as  an  effect  from  its  cause  ^ 

According  to  Madhva  the  Supreme  being  is  to  be  honoured 
in  three  ways — by  naming,  by  worship,  and  by  branding. 

The  act  of  naming  (nama-karana)  is  performed  by  giving  a 
child  one  of  the  thousand  names  of  Vishnu — such  asKesava — 
as  a  memorial  of  his  dedication  to  the  service  of  the  god. 

The  act  of  worship  is  threefold: — (i)  with  the  voice — by 
veracity,  right  conversation,  kind  words,  and  repetition  of  the 
Veda  ;  (2)  with  the  body — by  giving  alms  to  the  poor,  by 
defending  and  protecting  them ;  (3)  with  the  heart — by  mercy, 
love,  and  faith.  This  is  a  mere  repetition  of  the  old  triple 
division  of  duties,  according  to  thought,  word,  and  deed. 

With  regard  to  the  rite  of  branding  (called  ankana),  the  Ma- 
dhva sect,  like  the  Ramanujas  and  other  Vaishnavas,  lay  great 
stress  on  marking  the  body  indelibly  with  the  circular  discus 
and  shell  of  Vishnu.  They  firmly  believe  that  it  is  the  duty 
of  Vaishnavas  to  carry  throughout  life  a  memorial  of  their  god 

^  This  was  very  much  the  doctrine  of  the  Kabbalists,  who  equally 
held  that  nothinj,'  could  be  produced  from  nothing.  It  resembles  also  the 
theory  of  the  Stoics. 


Vaishnavism.     JMadhva  Sect.  133 

on  their  persons,  and  that  such  a  lasting  outward  and  visible 
sign  of  his  presence  will  help  them  to  obtain  salvation  through 
him. 

'  On  his  right  arm  let  the  Brahman  wear  the  discus,  on  his 
left  the  conch-shell !' 

When  I  was  at  Tanjore  I  found  that  one  of  the  successors 
of  Madhva  had  recently  arrived  on  his  branding-visitation. 
He  was  engaged  throughout  the  entire  day  in  stamping  his 
disciples  and  receiving  fees  from  all  according  to  their  means. 

Texts  are  recited  at  the  time  of  branding,  and  in  Sayana- 
Madhava's  time  the  following  prayer  was  said  : — '  O  Discus 
(Sudarsana),  brightly  blazing,  effulgent  as  ten  million  suns, 
show  unto  me,  blind  with  ignorance,  the  everlasting  way  of 
Vishnu.  Thou,  O  Conch-shell,  aforetime  sprangest  from  the 
sea,  held  in  the  hand  of  Vishnu,  adored  by  all  the  gods, 
to  thee  be  adoration.'  (Sarva-darsana-sahgraha,  Cowell  and 
Gough,  p.  92.) 

I  learnt,  too,  that  no  less  than  eight  Acaryas,  each  of  whom 
is  established  with  his  disciples  in  different  monasteries  with 
temples  attached,  claim  to  be  successors  of  Madhva.  There 
are,  however,  only  two  principal  religious  parties  among  the 
Madhvas.  No  doubt  these  quarrel  over  their  Shibboleths, 
but  not,  I  believe,  with  as  much  bitterness  as  the  two  divisions 
of  Ramanujas. 

The  frontal  mark  of  all  the  Madhvas  is  the  same,  consisting 
of  two  thin  vertical  lines  meeting  below  in  a  curve,  like  that  of 
the  Vada-galai  Ramanujas.  But  a  central  black  line  is  gener- 
ally made  with  charcoal  taken  from  incense  burnt  before  the 
idols  of  Vishnu. 

So  much  for  the  doctrines  of  two  sects  which,  from  their 
having  much  common  ground  with  Christianity,  are  worthy  of 
especial  attention.  Perhaps  Madhva's  system  is  the  more 
interesting  in  its  relation  to  European  thought,  but  his  Theism, 
like  that  of  Ramanuja  and  of  every  other  Hindu  Thcistic 
system,  differed  widely  in  many  important  points  from  the 


134  Vaishnavisin.      Vallabha  Sect. 

Theism  of  Christianity,  especially  in   making  God  the  sub- 
stantial as  well  as  efficient  cause  of  the  visible  world. 


Sect  founded  by   Vallabha. 

The  third  great  Vaishnava  sect  is  that  founded  by  Vallabha, 
or  as  he  is  commonly  called  Vallabhacarya,  said  to  have  been 
born  in  the  forest  of  Camparanya  about  the  year  1479.  He 
was  believed  to  have  been  an  embodiment  of  a  portion  of 
Krishna's  essence,  and  various  miraculous  stories  are  fabled 
about  him.  For  instance,  his  intelligence  is  alleged  to  have 
been  so  great  that  when  he  commenced  learning  at  seven 
years  of  age,  he  mastered  the  four  Vedas,  the  six  systems  of 
Philosophy,  and  the  eighteen  Puranas  in  four  months. 

After  precocity  so  prodigious  he  was  able  at  the  age  of 
twelve  to  formulate  a  new  view  of  the  Vaishnava  creed,  but 
one  which  was  to  a  certain  extent  derived  from  a  previous 
teacher  named  Vishnu-svaml.  Soon  he  commenced  travelling 
to  propagate  his  doctrines.  When  he  reached  the  court  of 
Krishnadeva,  King  of  Vijaya-nagar,  he  was  invited  to  engage 
in  a  public  disputation  with  a  number  of  Smarta  Brahmans. 
In  this  he  succeeded  so  well  that  he  was  elected  chief  Acarya 
of  the  Vaishnavas.  He  then  travelled  for  nine  years  through 
different  parts  of  India,  and  finally  settled  in  Benares,  where 
he  composed  seventeen  works^  among  which  was  a  commen- 
tary on  the  Bhagavata-purana.  This  last  work,  especially  its 
tenth  book — descriptive  of  the  early  life  of  Krishna — is  the 
chief  authoritative  source  of  the  doctrines  of  the  sect.  Val- 
labhacarya's  view  of  the  Vaishnava  creed  has  been  called 
Pushti-marga,  the  way  of  eating,  drinking,  and  enjoying  one- 
self. But  in  real  fact  he  simply  discountenanced  asceticism  as 
a  mode  of  commending  man  to  God.  He  maintained  that 
worship  of  the  Deity  need  not  be  accompanied  with  fasting, 
self-mortification,  and  suppression  of  the  passions,  but  that 


Vaishnavism.      Vallabha  Sect.  135 

the  natural  appetites  were  intended  to  be  gratified,  and  the 
good  things  of  this  world  to  be  enjoyed. 

In  philosophy  Vallabha^s  opinions  appear  to  have  resembled 
those  of  Ramanuja,  though  he  is  said  to  have  had  a  greater 
leaning  towards  pure  Vedantism  '.  He  is  known  to  have  died 
at  Benares;  but,  according  to  his  followers,  was  transported  to 
heaven  while  performing  his  ablutions  in  the  Ganges. 

His  followers  are  numerous  in  Bombay,  Gujarat,  and  Central 
India,  particularly  among  the  merchants  and  traders  called 
Baniyas  and  Bhatiyas.  He  left  behind  him  eighty-four  princi- 
pal disciples,  who  disseminated  his  doctrines  in  various  direc- 
tions. But  the  real  successor  to  his  Gad!  (gaddl)  or  chair  was 
his  second  son,  Vitthalnath,  sometimes  called  GosainjI  from 
his  having  settled  at  Gokul^  Krishna's  abode  near  Muttra. 
This  Vitthalnath  had  seven  sons,  each  of  whom  established 
a  Gad!  in  different  districts,  especially  in  Bombay,  Kutch, 
Kathiawar,  and  Malwa.  The  influence  of  Vallabhacarya's 
successors  became  so  great  that  they  received  the  title  Maha- 
raja, 'great  king,'  the  name  Gosain  (for  Gosvamin — lord  of 
cows — an  epithet  of  Krishna)  being  sometimes  added. 

As  was  naturally  to  be  expected,  his  followers  exaggerated 
his  teaching,  especially  in  regard  to  his  non-ascetical  view  of 
religion.  They  have  been  called  '  the  Epicureans  of  India.' 
Their  spiritual  leaders,  the  Maharajas,  dress  in  the  costliest 
raiment,  feed  on  the  daintiest  viands,  and  abandon  themselves 
to  every  form  of  sensuality  and  luxury. 

The  children  of  the  Vallabhacaryans  are  admitted  to  mem- 
bership at  the  age  of  two,  three,  or  four  years.  A  rosary,  or 
necklace  (kanthi)  of  one  hundred  and  eight  beads-,  made  of 
tulsl  wood,  is  passed  round  their  necks  by  the  Maharaja,  and 

'  The  Suddhadvaita  or  'pure  Non-duality'  doctrine — which  he  is  said 
to  have  held  in  contradistinction  to  the  Visishtadvaita  of  Ramanuja — is 
not  very  clearly  explained  in  the  books  of  the  sect. 

"^  These  represent  the  108  chief  names  of  Krishna  as  the  Supreme 
Being,  to  match  which  a  similar  number  of  epithets  are  applied  to  the 
successors  of  Vallabha. 


1  :;6  Vaishnavism.      Vallabha  Sect. 


J 


they  are  taught  the  use  of  the  eight-syllabled  prayer,  '  Great 
Krishna  is  my  soul's  refuge'  (SrI-Krishnah  saranam  mama). 

The  god  worshipped  is  the  Krishna  form  of  Vishnu,  as  he 
appeared  in  his  boyhood,  when,  as  a  mere  child,  he  gave  him- 
self up  to  childish  mirth,  and  condescended  to  sport  with  the 
Gopis  or  cowherdesses  of  Mathura  (Muttra). 

I  was  once  present  at  a  kind  of  revivalist  camp-meeting 
near  Allahabad,  where  a  celebrated  Hindu  preacher  ad- 
dressed a  large  assemblage  of  people  and  magnified  this 
condescension  as  a  proof  of  Krishna's  superiority  to  all  other 
gods. 

Then,  again,  images  used  in  the  temples  of  the  sect  represent 
Krishna  in  the  boyish  period  of  his  life  (in  the  form  called 
Bala-Krishna),  supposed  to  extend  to  his  twelfth  year.  Ac- 
cording to  the  higher  Vaishnava  creed,  Krishna's  love  for 
the  GopTs — themselves  the  wives  of  the  cowherds — and  the 
love  of  the  GopTs  for  Krishna  are  to  be  explained  allego- 
rically,  and  symbolize  the  longing  of  the  human  soul  for  union 
with  the  Supreme  (Brahma-sambandha).  When  I  have  asked 
strict  Vaishnavas  for  an  explanation  of  Krishna's  alleged 
adulteries,  I  have  always  been  told  that  his  attachment  to  the 
GopTs  was  purely  spiritual,  and  that,  in  fact,  he  was  only  a 
child  at  the  time  of  his  association  with  them. 

Yet  it  is  certain  that  the  followers  of  Vallabha  interpreted 
that  attachment  in  a  gross  and  material  sense.  Hence  their 
devotion  to  Krishna  has  degenerated  into  the  most  corrupt 
practices,  and  their  whole  system  has  become  rotten  to  the 
core.  It  will  scarcely  be  believed  that  the  male  members  of 
the  sect  often  seek  to  win  the  favour  of  their  god  by  wearing 
long  hair  and  assimilating  themselves  to  females ;  and  even 
their  spiritual  chiefs,  the  Maharajas,  the  successors  of  Vallabh- 
acarya,  sometimes  simulate  the  appearance  of  women  (that  is, 
of  GopTs)  when  they  lead  the  worship  of  their  followers. 

But  the  real  blot,  or  rather  foul  stain,  which  defaces  and 
defiles  the  system,  remains  to  be  described.  These  Maharajas 


VaisJinavism.      Vallabha  Sect.  137 

have  come  to  be  regarded  as  representatives  of  Krishna  upon 
earth,  or  even  as  actual  incarnations  or  inn)crsonations  of  the 
god.  So  that  in  the  temples  where  the  Maharajas  do  homage 
to  the  idols,  men  and  women  do  homage  to  the  Maharajas, 
prostrating  themselves  at  their  feet,  offering  them  incense, 
fruits  and  flowers,  and  waving  lights  before  them,  as  the 
Maharajas  themselves  do  before  the  images  of  the  gods. 
One  mode  of  worshipping  the  boyish  Krishna  is  by  swinging 
his  images  in  swings.  Hence,  in  every  district  presided  over 
by  a  Maharaja,  the  women  are  accustomed  to  worship  not 
Krishna  but  the  Maharaja  by  swinging  him  in  pendent  seats. 
The  Pan-suparl  ejected  from  his  mouth,  the  leavings  of  his 
food,  and  the  very  dust  on  which  he  has  walked,  are  eagerly 
devoured  by  his  devotees,  while  they  also  drink  the  water 
rinsed  from  his  garments,  and  that  used  in  the  washing  of  his 
feet,  which  they  call  Caranamrita,  '  feet  nectar.'  Others, 
again,  worship  his  wooden  shoes,  or  prostrate  themselves 
before  his  seat  (gadi)  and  his  painted  portraits.  Nay,  infinitely 
worse  than  all  this:  it  is  believed  that  the  best  mode  of 
propitiating  the  god  Krishna  in  heaven  is  by  ministering  to 
the  sensual  appetites  of  his  successors  and  vicars  upon  earth. 
Body,  soul,  and  property  (in  popular  language  tan,  man,  dhan) 
are  to  be  wholly  made  over  to  them  in  a  peculiar  rite  called 
Self-devotion  (samarpana),  and  women  are  taught  to  believe 
that  highest  bliss  will  be  secured  to  themselves  and  their 
families  by  the  caresses  of  Krishna's  representatives. 

The  profligacy  of  the  Maharajas  was  exposed  in  the  cele- 
brated trial  of  the  Maharaja  libel  case,  which  came  before 
the  Supreme  Court  of  Bombay  on  the  26th  of  January,  1862. 
The  evidence  given,  and  the  judgment  of  the  judges,  have 
acted  as  some  check  on  the  licentious  practices  of  the  sect, 
but  it  is  still  held  to  represent  the  worst  and  most  corrupt 
phase  of  the  Vaishnava  religion. 

The  reformation  of  the  Vallabhaearya  system  effected  by 
Svami-Narayana  will  be  described  in  Chapter  VI.  p.  14H. 


138  VaisJmavism.     Caiiaiiya  Sect. 

Sect  founded  by  Caitanya. 

The  fourth  principal  sect  of  Vaishnavas  is  found  in  Bengal. 
They  are  the  followers  of  a  celebrated  teacher  named  Caitanya, 
and  their  precepts  and  practices  have  a  close  community  with 
those  of  the  Vallabhacaryans  already  described.  The  bio- 
graphy  of  Caitanya,  as  given  by  native  writers,  is,  as  usual, 
chiefly  legendary.  Only  scattered  elements  of  truth  are 
discoverable  amidst  a  confused  farrago  of  facts,  fiction,  and 
romance.  What  respect,  indeed,  for  chronological  or  historical 
accuracy  can  be  expected  in  a  people  who  are  firmly  con- 
vinced that  their  own  existence  and  that  of  every  one  else 
is  an  illusion? 

I  believe  it  is  pretty  certain  that  Caitanya  was  born  at 
Nadlya  (  =  NavadvIpa)  in  Bengal  in  the  year  1485  of  our 
era,  two  years  after  Luther  in  Europe.  His  father  was  an 
orthodox  Brahman  named  Jagannath  Misra.  His  mother 
was  the  daughter  of  Nilambar  (^akravartl.  Since  Caitanya 
is  held  to  have  been  an  incarnation  of  Krishna  various  pro- 
digies are  described  as  having  marked  his  first  appearance 
in  the  world.  He  was  thirteen  months  in  the  womb.  Then 
soon  after  his  birth,  at  the  end  of  an  eclipse,  a  number  of 
holy  men  (among  whom  was  his  future  disciple  Advaita) 
arrived  at  the  house  of  his  parents  to  do  homage  to  the 
new-born  child,  and  to  present  him  with  offerings  of  rice, 
fruits,  gold  and  silver.  In  his  childhood  he  resembled  the 
young  Krishna  in  condescending  to  boyish  sports  (lila).  Yet 
his  intellect  was  so  acute  that  he  rapidly  acquired  a  complete 
knowledge  of  Sanskrit  grammar  and  literature.  His  favourite 
subject  of  study  was  the  Vaishnava  bible,  consisting  of  the 
Bhagavata-purana,  and  Bhagavad-gita. 

Yet  Caitanya,  notwithstanding  his  devotion  to  religious 
study,  did  not  shrink  from  what  every  Hindu  believes  to 
be  a  sacred  obligation— the  duty  of  marrying  a  wife,  and 
becoming  a  householder  (grihastha).     He  even  married  again 


Vaishiiavisni.     Caitanya  Sect.  139 

when  his  first  wife  died  from  a  snake-bite.  At  the  age  of 
twenty-five  (a.D.  1509)  he  resolved  to  abandon  all  worldly 
connexions,  and  give  himself  up  to  a  religious  life.  Accord- 
ing!)', like  Vallabhacarya  and  at  about  the  same  period,  he 
commenced  a  series  of  pilgrimages.  His  travels  occupied 
six  years,  and  he  is  known  to  have  visited  some  of  the  most 
celebrated  shrines  of  India,  especially  those  of  Benares,  Gaya, 
Mathura,  Srlrangam,  and  ultimately  the  temple  of  Jagan-nath 
at  Purl  in  Orissa. 

Having  thus  prepared  himself  for  his  mission,  he  addressed 
himself  to  the  real  work  of  preaching  and  propagating  his 
own  view  of  the  Vaishnava  creed.  It  is  noteworthy  that  just 
about  the  time  when  Luther  was  agitating  the  minds  of  men 
in  Europe,  Caitanya  was  stirring  the  hearts  of  the  people  of 
Bengal.  After  making  many  converts  he  seems  to  have 
appointed  his  two  most  eminent  followers,  Advaita  and 
Nityananda,  to  preside  over  his  disciples  in  that  part  of 
India.  He  himself  settled  for  twelve  years  at  Katak  in 
Orissa.  There  he  lived  for  the  rest  of  his  life  in  close 
proximity  to  the  great  temple  of  Jagan-nath,  and  contributed 
to  the  reputation  of  the  shrine  by  his  presence  at  the  annual 
festivals. 

His  success  as  a  preacher  was  remarkable.  Even  his 
enemies  were  attracted  by  the  persuasiveness  of  his  manner 
and  the  magnetic  power  of  his  eloquence.  The  lower  classes 
flocked  to  him  by  thousands.  Nor  was  their  admiration  of 
him  surprising.  The  first  principle  he  inculcated  was  that  all 
the  faithful  worshippers  of  Krishna  (  =  Vishnu)  were  to  be 
treated  as  equals.  Caste  was  to  be  subordinated  to  faith  in 
Krishna^  'The  mercy  of  God,'  said  Caitanya,  'regards 
neither  tribe  nor  family.' 

^  This  was  his  theory,  but  among  his  numerous  followers  of  the 
present  day  the  doctrine  of  equality  does  not  overcome  caste-feeling 
and  caste-observances  except  during  religious  services.  The  food  pre- 
sented to  the  idol  of  Jagan-nath  is  distributed  to  all  castes  alike,  and 
eaten  by  all  indiscriminately  at  the  annual  festival. 


140  Vaishnamsm.     Caitanya  Sect. 

By  thus  proclaiming  social  equality  he  secured  popularity. 
In  this  respect  he  wisely  imitated  the  method  of  Buddhists  and 
Saktas.  The  doctrine  of  the  latter,  who  abounded  everywhere 
in  Bengal,  was  that  magical  powers  might  be  acquired  by  the 
worship  of  the  female  principle  or  generative  faculty  (sakti) 
in  nature,  personified  as  Siva's  wife.  They  believed  that  the 
male  principle,  personified  as  the  male  god  Siva,  the  great 
Reproducer,  was  helpless  in  the  work  of  Reproduction  with- 
out the  energizing  action  of  the  female  principle.  Hence  the 
union  of  the  sexes  was  thought  by  some  to  be  typical  of  a 
great  cosmical  mystery.  This  will  be  more  fully  explained 
in  the  chapter  on  Saktism. 

Caitanya  professed  to  oppose  these  Sakta  doctrines,  both  as 
tending  to  licentious  practices,  and  as  ignoring  the  supremacy 
of  the  god  Vishnu  over  Siva.  Yet  his  system,  like  that  of 
Vallabha,  had  a  tendency  in  the  same  direction.  He  taught 
that  the  devotion  of  the  soul  to  Vishnu  was  to  be  symbolized 
under  the  figure  of  human  love.  ' "  Thou  art  dear  to  my 
heart,  thou  art  part  of  my  soul,"  said  a  young  man  to  his 
loved  one  ;  "  I  love  thee,  but  why,  I  know  not."  So  ought 
the  worshipper  to  love  Krishna,  and  worship  him  for  his 
sake  only.  Let  him  offer  all  to  God,  and  expect  no 
remuneration.  He  acts  like  a  trader  who  asks  for  a  return.'' 
Such  are  the  words  of  a  modern  exponent  of  the  Vaishnava 
system. 

I  have  already  pointed  out  that  the  idea  of  faith  (bhakti)  as 
a  means  of  salvation,  which  was  formally  taught  by  the 
authors  of  the  Bhagavad-gita,  Bhagavata-purana  and  Sandilya- 
sutra,  was  scarcely  known  in  early  times.  The  leading  doc- 
trine of  the  Vcdic  hymns  and  Brahmanas  is  that  works 
(karma),  especially  as  represented  by  the  performance  of 
sacrifices  (yajiia),  constitute  the  shortest  pathway  to  beati- 
tude, while  the  Upanishads  insist  mainly  on  abstract  medita- 
tion and  divine  knowledge  (jnana)  as  the  true  method. 
Caitanya   affirmed    that    faith    and    devotion— displayed    by 


Vaislinavism.     Caitanya  Sect.  14I 

complete  submission  of  the  soul  to  Krishna — was  the  only 
road  to  heaven.  Faith,  in  fact,  superseded  all  other  duties. 
'  Whatever  is  accomplished  by  works,  by  penance,  by  divine 
knowledge,  by  suppression  of  the  passions,  by  abstract  me- 
ditation, by  charity,  by  virtue,  by  other  excellences, — all 
this  is  effected  by  faith  in  me.  Paradise,  Heaven,  supreme 
beatitude,  union  with  the  godhead, — every  wish  of  the  heart 
is  obtainable  by  faith  in  me.'  Such  are  Krishna's  own  words, 
according  to  the  belief  of  Caitanya  and  other  Vaishnava 
teachers.     (Bhagavata-purana  XI.) 

But  the  devotional  feelings  of  Krishna's  votaries  are  sup- 
posed to  be  susceptible  of  five  phases,  or  rather,  perhaps, 
to  be  exhibited  in  five  different  ways,  which  are  thus  enu- 
merated: —  I.  Calm  contemplation  of  the  godhead  (santi)  ; 
2.  Active  servitude  (dasya) ;  3.  A  feeling  of  personal  friend- 
ship (sakhya) ;  4.  A  feeling  of  filial  attachment  like  that  of 
a  child  for  its  parent  (vatsalya) ;  5-  A  feeling  of  tender  afifec- 
tion  like  that  of  a  girl  for  her  lover  (madhurya). 

The  last  of  these  is  held  to  be  the  highest  feeling.  Indeed, 
Caitanya  taught  that  the  great  aim  of  every  worshipper  of 
Krishna  ought  to  be  to  lose  all  individuality  and  self-con- 
sciousness in  ecstatic  union  with  his  god.  To  bring  about 
this  condition  of  intense  religious  fervour  various  practices 
were  enjoined — for  example,  incessant  repetition  of  the  deity's 
name  (nama-kirtana),  singing  (sahklrtana),  music,  dancing,  or 
movements  of  the  body  allied  to  dancing,  such  as  were  also 
practised  by  certain  Saiva  devotees  ^  Caitanya  was  himself 
in  the  constant  habit  of  swooning  away  in  paroxysms  of  ecstatic 

'  These  correspond  to  the  Zikr  and  religious  dancing  of  the  Muham- 
madan  dervishes.  For  even  cold  Islam  has  its  devotees  who  aim  at 
religious  ecstasy,  resorting  to  expedients  very  similar  to  those  of  the 
(^aitanyas.  I  have  been  twice  present  at  the  weekly  services  of  the 
Cairo  dervishes.  One  sect  repeat  the  name  of  God  with  violent  ejacu- 
lations and  contortions  of  the  body,  while  another  fraternity  whirl 
themselves  round  till  they  swoon  away  in  the  intensity  of  their  religious 
fervour. 


142  Vaishnavism.     Caitauya  Sect. 

emotion,  which  at  last  aftected  his  reason.  His  biographers 
assert  that  in  one  of  these  fits  he  was  translated  directly  to 
Vishnu's  heaven  (Vaikuntha).  According  to  some  accounts 
he  ended  his  life  by  walking  into  the  sea  near  Purl  in  Orissa, 
fancying  he  saw  a  beatific  vision  of  Krishna  sporting  on  the 
waves  with  his  favourite  Gopls.  Certain  it  is  that  he  dis- 
appeared in  a  mysterious  manner  about  A.D.  1527,  at  the  age 
of  forty-two. 

Then  happened  what  has  constantly  taken  place  in  the 
religious  history  of  India.  Men  of  high  aspirations,  who  have 
laboured  for  the  revival  or  reformation  of  religion,  and  re- 
ceived homage  as  inspired  teachers  from  crowds  of  disciples 
during  life,  have  been  worshipped  as  actual  deities  at  death. 
The  only  question  in  the  minds  of  Caitanya's  devoted  fol- 
lowers was  as  to  whether  he  was  a  full  manifestation  of  the 
Supreme  Being  (Krishna)  or  only  a  descent  of  a  portion  (ansa) 
of  his  essence.  The  difificulty  seems  to  have  been  settled  by 
deciding  that  Caitanya  was  none  other  than  very  Krishna 
incarnate,  and  that  his  two  principal  disciples,  Advaita  and 
Nityananda,  were  manifestations  of  portions  of  the  same 
deity.  These  three  leaders  of  the  sect  are  therefore  called 
the  three  great  lords  (Prabhus).  They  constitute  the  sacred 
triad  of  this  phase  of  Vaishnavism. 

But  a  fourth  leader,  named  Hari-das,  who  during  his  life- 
time was  a  companion  of  Caitanya,  is  worshipped  as  a  sepa- 
rate divinity  in  Bengal.  Indeed,  all  the  living  successors  and 
the  present  leaders  of  the  sect,  called  Gosains  (  =  Gosvamins), 
arc  venerated  as  little  less  than  deities  by  the  Vaishnavas  of 
this  school.  For  the  worship  of  living  religious  leaders  and 
teachers  (usually  called  by  the  general  name  Guru)  is  a 
marked  feature  of  this  as  of  all  forms  of  Vaishnavism.  The 
Guru  with  Vaishnavas  is  far  more  than  a  teacher,  and  even 
more  than  a  mediator  between  God  and  men.  He  is  the 
present  god — the  visible  living  incarnation  of  the  deity.  His 
anger  and  favour  make  themselves  instantly  felt.     He  is  on 


VaisJinavism.     Caitanya  Sect.  143 

that  account  even  more  feared  and  honoured  than  the  very- 
god  of  whom  he  is  the  representative  and  embodiment. 

Another  marked  feature  of  the  system  is  the  extraordinary 
value  attached  to  the  repetition  of  Krishna's  names,  especially 
of  his  name  Hari.  The  mere  mechanical  process  of  con- 
stantly repeating  this  name  Hari — though  the  mind  be  per- 
fectly vacant  or  fixed  on  some  other  object — secures  admission 
to  Vishnu's  heaven.  Nothing  else  is  needed.  All  religious 
ceremonies  are  comparatively  useless.  Hari-das  is  said  to 
have  retired  to  a  secluded  place  in  a  wood  for  the  purpose  of 
repeating  the  word  Hari  300,000  times  daily.  Even  a  blas- 
phemous repetition  of  Krishna's  name  is  believed  by  his 
followers  to  be  quite  sufficient  to  secure  final  beatitude. 
Indeed  the  Pandits  of  the  Maratha  country  affirm  that  there 
is  a  form  of  devotion  called  Virodha-bhakti,  which  consists  in 
a  man's  cursing  the  deity  with  the  sole  object  of  achieving  the 
supreme  bliss  of  being  utterly  annihilated  by  him,  and  so 
reabsorbed  into  the  god's  essence. 

It  is  related  of  a  certain  wicked  godless  man  that  he  had 
a  son  named  Narayana  (one  of  the  principal  names  of 
Vishnu).  On  his  death-bed,  and  just  before  breathing  his 
last,  the  father  called  out  his  son's  name  without  the  most 
remote  intention  of  invoking  the  god.  The  effect  was  that 
Yama's  messengers,  who  stood  ready  to  convey  the  repro- 
bate's soul  to  a  place  of  punishment,  were  obliged  to  make 
way  for  the  emissaries  of  Vishnu,  who  carried  the  spirit  off  in 
triumph  to  the  god's  paradise. 

The  repetition  of  particular  Vedic  texts  is  by  some  regarded 
as  equally  efficacious.  A  story  is  told  of  a  certain  converted 
Hindu  who  took  occasion  to  recount  his  experiences  before 
becoming  a  Christian.  It  appears  that  he  had  been  troubled 
with  a  constant  longing  for  a  vision  of  Vishnu,  and  in  his 
distress  consulted  a  Brahman,  who  informed  him  that  to 
obtain  the  desired  vision  he  would  have  to  repeat  a  particular 
text  (]\Iantra)  800,000  times.     This  he  accomplished  by  dint 


144  Vaishnavism.     Caitanya  Sect. 

of  hard  work  night  and  day  in  three  months,  and,  on  com- 
plaining to  his  friend  the  Brahman  that  no  result  followed, 
was  told  that  he  must  have  made  some  slight  verbal  mistake 
in  the  repetition  of  some  one  text,  and  that  any  such  slip 
necessitated  his  going  through  the  whole  process  again. 

A  great  many  treatises  (such  as  the  Caitanya-caritamrita 
written  by  Krishna-das  in  1590)  have  been  composed  by  the 
disciples  of  (Caitanya  in  support  of  his  tenets.  These  works 
are  in  high  repute  in  Bengal. 

At  the  end  of  the  chapter  on  Saivism  I  described  the 
ceremonial  acts  practised  in  worshipping  the  Liiiga  of  Siva, 
as  well  as  the  exceptional  rites  performed  at  Bhuvanesvara 
(pp.  90-94).  The  process  of  worshipping  the  images  of 
Krishna  has  many  points  of  resemblance,  but  I  had  few  oppor- 
tunities of  witnessing  the  detail  of  the  ceremonies  employed. 

On  one  occasion,  however,  I  was  allowed  to  look  through  an 
accidental  crevice  into  the  shrine  of  a  Vaishnava  temple  at 
Poena  while  the  early  morning  service  (puja)  was  performed. 
The  idol  of  the  god  Krishna  first  underwent  a  process  of  being 
roused  from  its  supposed  nocturnal  slumbers  by  the  attendant 
priest,  who  invoked  the  deity  by  name.  Then  a  respectful 
offering  of  water  in  a  boat-shaped  vessel  was  made  to  it. 
Next  the  whole  idol  was  bathed  and  holy  water  poured  over 
it  from  a  small  perforated  metal  lota.  Then  the  attendant 
priest  standing  near  appHed  sandal-paste  (candana)  with  his 
finger  to  the  idol's  forehead  and  limbs,  and,  taking  a  brush, 
painted  the  face  with  a  bright  colouring  substance,  probably 
saffron.  Next,  the  idol  was  dressed  and  decorated  with  costly 
clothes  and  ornaments.  Then  the  priest  burnt  camphor  and 
incense  and  waved  lights  before  the  image,  at  the  same  time 
ringing  a  small  bell  (ghanta).  Then  flowers  (pushpa)  and  the 
leaves  of  the  sacred  tulsi  plant  were  offered,  followed  by  an 
oblation  of  food  (naivedya),  consisting  of  cooked  rice  with 
sugar.  Next  water  was  taken  out  of  a  small  metal  vessel 
with  a  spoon  and  was  presented  for  sipping  (acamana).     The 


VaisJinavism.     C ait  any  a  Sect.  145 

god  was  of  course  supposed  to  consume  the  food  or  feast  on 
its  aroma,  receiving  at  the  end  of  the  meal  an  offering  of  betel 
for  the  supposed  cleansing  of  the  mouth  after  eating,  and 
a  spoonful  more  water  for  a  second  sipping.  Finally  the 
priest  prostrated  himself  before  the  idol,  and  terminated  the 
whole  ceremony  by  putting  the  god  comfortably  to  sleep  for 
the  day. 

While  he  was  going  through  these  ceremonial  acts  he 
appeared  to  be  muttering  texts,  and  I  observed  that  during 
the  whole  service  a  Brahman  was  seated  on  the  ground  not 
far  off,  who  intoned  portions  of  the  tenth  book  of  the  Bhaga- 
vata-purana,  descriptive  of  the  life  of  Krishna,  reading  from 
a  copy  of  the  work  placed  before  him.  At  the  same  time  a 
band  of  musicians  outside  the  temple  over  the  entrance  to 
the  compound  played  a  discordant  accompaniment  with  tom- 
toms, fifes,  and  drums. 

In  the  evening  the  process  of  waking,  undressing,  and  re- 
dressing the  image  was  repeated,  but  without  bathing. 
Flowers  and  food  were  again  offered,  prayers  and  texts  were 
intoned,  a  musical  service  was  performed,  and  the  idol  put  to 
sleep  once  more. 

The  cooked  food  offered  to  the  idol  is  ultimately  eaten  by 
the  priests.  In  large  temples  it  is  also  distributed  to  the 
worshippers,  who  receive  it  eagerly  as  divine  nutriment,  and 
at  some  places  (for  example  at  a  particular  temple  in 
Benares)  considerable  portions  are  sold  at  high  prices  to 
outside  applicants.  The  water  in  which  the  idol  is  washed 
is  called  tirtha,  and  is  drunk  as  holy  water. 


CHAPTER   VI. 

Vaishnavism.     Minor  Sects  and  Reforming 
Theistic  Movements. 

We  cannot  quit  the  subject  of  Vaishnavism  without  giving 
some  account  of  its  more  important  minor  sects,  as  well  as 
of  certain  reforming  theistic  movements  which  may  be  said 
to  have  grown  out  of  it.     We  may  begin  with  the 

Sect  fotmded  by  Nimbarka  or  Nimbaditya. 

This  is  perhaps  one  of  the  oldest  of  the  known  minor  sects. 
Its  founder  Nimbarka  or  Nimbaditya,  whose  followers  are 
sometimes  called  Nimanandis,  sometimes  Nimavats,  is  held 
to  have  been  identical  with  the  astronomer  Bhaskarac'arya, 
who  flourished  about  the  twelfth  century.  The  poet  Jaya- 
deva,  who  is  also  supposed  to  have  lived  in  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury, may  have  been  his  disciple.  If  so,  it  is  certain  that  the 
disciple  did  more  than  his  master  to  promote  the  doctrine  of 
devotion  to  Krishna.  In  Jaya-deva's  mystical  poem,  called 
the  Gita-govinda  (compared  by  some  to  our  Song  of  Solo- 
mon), arc  described  the  loves  of  Krishna  and  the  GopTs 
(wives  and  daughters  of  the  Cowherds),  and  especially  of 
Krishna  and  Radha,  as  typical  of  the  longing  of  the  human 
soul  for  union  with  the  divine. 

Others  again  believe  Nimbarka  to  have  been  an  actual 
incarnation  of  the  Sun-god,  and  maintain  that  he  derived  his 
name  of  '  Nimb-tree-Sun'  from  having  one  day  stopped  the 
course  of  the  sun's  disk,  dislodged  it  from  the  heavens,  and 


Vaishnavism.     Ramananda  Sat.  147 

confined  it  for  a  brief  season  in  a  Nimb  (Nlm)  tree.  Accord- 
ing to  Hindu  ideas,  this  remarkable  miracle  was  worked  for 
no  unworthy  or  insufficient  purpose.  It  enabled  Nimbarka 
to  offer  food  just  before  sunset  to  a  holy  guest  whose  reli- 
gious vows  prevented  his  eating  after  dark. 

No  noteworthy  doctrines  distinguish  Nimbarka's  creed,  ex- 
cept, perhaps,  that  his  followers,  who  are  not  very  numerous, 
are  particular  to  worship  the  goddess  Radha  in  conjunction 
with  Krishna. 

Sect  fotmdcd  by  Ramananda. 

Ramananda  is  said  to  have  been  born  in  the  thirteenth 
century.  The  sect  founded  by  him  in  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury has  many  adherents  in  Gangetic  India,  especially  around 
Agra.  They  are  often  called  Ramanandls  or  Riimavats, 
and  are  sometimes  confounded  with  the  Ramanujas,  the  fact 
being  that  Ramananda  was  probably  one  of  Ramanuja's 
disciples.  The  Ramananda  Vaishnavas,  however,  have  dis- 
tinctive doctrines  of  their  own.  Theyworship  Vishnu  under 
the  form  of  Rama  (the  hero  of  the  Ramayana)  either  singly 
or  conjointly  with  his  wife  Slta,  and  they  are  not,  like  the 
Ramanujas,  hyper-scrupulous  about  the  privacy  of  their  meals. 
Their  favourite  book  is  the  Bhakta-mala  of  NabhajT — a  work 
interesting  for  its  biographies  of  certain  Vaishnavas  and  ad- 
herents of  the  sect,  among  whom  are  included  two  well- 
known  poets,  Sur-das  and  TulasT-das  (commonly  TulsT-das). 
The  former  was  blind.  He  wrote  a  vast  number  of  stanzas 
in  praise  of  Vishnu,  and  is  regarded  as  a  kind  of  patron  of 
blind  men,  especially  if  they  roam  about  as  wandering 
musicians. 

Tulsl-das,  whose  verses  are  to  this  day  household  words  in 
every  town  and  rural  district  where  the  Hindi  language  is 
spoken,  ranks  as  a  poet  of  higher  order.  He  was  born  near 
Citra-kuta  about  A.  D.  1544,  and  settled  at  Benares,  where  he 

L  2 


148  Vaishnavism.     Sv  ami- N dray  an  a  Sect. 

became  an  enthusiastic  worshipper  of  Rama  and  Sita.  His 
Hindi  poem,  the  Ramayana,  or  history  of  Rama,  is  no  mere 
translation  of  Valmlki's  great  work.  It  has  all  the  freshness 
of  an  independent  and  original  composition.  He  died  about 
1624. 

But  Ramananda  is  chiefly  noted  for  his  twelve  immediate 
disciples,  the  most  celebrated  of  whom  were  Kablr,  Pipa,  and 
Ravi-das.  Of  these  again  by  far  the  most  remarkable  was 
Kablr.  He  was  an  enthusiastic  reformer,  who  founded  a 
distinct  theistic  sect ;  to  be  presently  noticed.  Let  us  first, 
however,  conclude  our  description  of  strictly  Vaishnava  secta- 
rianism by  giving  some  account  of  the  comparatively  modern 
Vaishnava  sect  founded  by  Svami-Narayana.  This  sect  is 
worthy  of  a  full  notice,  both  because  it  affords  a  good  ex- 
ample of  the  best  aspect  of  modern  Vaishnavism,  and  because 
the  efforts  of  its  founder  to  deliver  the  system  of  Vallabh- 
acarya  from  the  corrupting  influences  of  the  profligate  Maha- 
rajas (see  pp.  136,  137)  is  worthy  of  all  praise. 

Sect  foiLiiUed  by  Svdmi-N dray  ana. 

Svami-Narayana^  whose  proper  name  was  Sahajananda, 
was  a  high-caste  Brahman.  He  was  born  at  Chapal,  a  village 
one  hundred  and  twenty  miles  to  the  north-west  of  Lucknow, 
about  the  year  1780.  He  was  a  Vaishnava,  but  disgusted 
with  the  manner  of  life  of  the  so-called  followers  of  Vallabh- 
acarya,  whose  precepts  and  practice  were  utterly  at  variance, 
and  especially  with  the  licentious  habits  of  the  Bombay  Ma- 
harajas (see  p.  137),  he  determined  to  denounce  their  irregu- 
larities and  expose  their  vices.  He  himself  was  a  celibate, 
virtuous,  self-controlled,  austere,  ascetical,  yet  withal  large- 
hearted  and  philanthropic,  and  with  a  great  aptitude  for 
learning.  He  left  his  home  about  the  year  1800,  and  took 
up  his  abode  at  a  village  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
Junagarh  Nawab.     There  he  placed  himself  under  the  pro- 


Vaishnavism.     Svdmi-Narayana  Sect.         149 

tection  of  the  chief  Guru,  named  Ramruianda-SvamT.  When 
that  holy  man  removed  to  Ahmedabad,  in  1S04,  Sahajananda 
followed  him. 

In  a  large  and  populous  city  a  man  of  evident  ability  and 
professed  sanctity  could  not  fail  to  attract  attention.  Soon 
Sahajananda  collected  about  his  own  person  a  little  band  of 
disciples,  which  rapidly  multiplied  into  an  army  of  devoted 
adherents.  Some  attribute  his  influence  to  a  power  of  mes- 
merizing his  followers,  but  he  probably  owed  his  success  to  a 
remarkable  fascination  of  manner  combined  with  consistency 
of  moral  character,  and  other  qualities  which  singled  him 
out  for  a  leader.  His  disciples  increased  so  rapidly  that  the 
Brahmans  and  magnates  of  Ahmedabad  began  to  be  jealous 
of  his  popularity.  He  was  obliged  to  fly,  and  sought  refuge 
at  Jetalpur,  twelve  miles  south  of  Ahmedabad.  There  he 
invited  all  the  Brahmans  of  the  neighbourhood  to  the  per- 
formance of  a  great  sacrifice.  The  native  officials  no  sooner 
heard  of  the  proposed  assemblage  than,  fearing  a  collision 
between  his  followers  and  other  religious  parties,  they  had 
him  arrested  on  some  frivolous  pretext  and  thrown  into 
prison.  Such  an  act  of  tyranny  defeated  its  own  object.  It 
excited  universal  sympathy,  and  increased  his  influence.  He 
was  soon  released.  Hymns  were  composed  in  which  his 
merits  were  extolled.  Verses  were  written  descriptive  of 
his  sufferings.  Curses  were  launched  against  the  heads  of 
his  persecutors. 

Jetalpur  then  became  the  focus  of  a  great  religious  gather- 
ing. Thousands  flocked  to  the  town  and  enrolled  themselves 
as  the  followers  of  Sahajananda,  who  took  the  name  of 
Svami-Narayana. 

Bishop  Hcber,  in  his  Indian  Journal,  gives  the  following 
interesting  account  of  an  interview  with  him  at  this  period  of 
his  career : — 

About  eleven  o'clock  I  had  the  expected  visit  from  Svami-Narfiyana. 
The  holy  man  was  a  middle-sized,  thin,  plain-looking  person,  about  my 


150         Vaishuavism.     Sv  ami- N amy  ana  Sect. 

own  age,  with  a  mild  and  diffident  expression  of  countenance,  but 
nothing  about  him  indicative  of  any  extraordinary  talent.  He  came 
in  somewhat  different  style  from  all  I  had  expected,  having  with  him 
nearly  two  hundred  horsemen.  When  I  considered  that  I  had  myself 
an  escort  of  more  than  fifty  horse  I  could  not  help  smiling,  though  my 
sensations  were  in  some  degree  painful  and  humiliating  at  the  idea  of 
two  religious  teachers  meeting  at  the  head  of  little  armies,  and  filling 
the  city  which  was  the  scene  of  their  interview  with  the  rattling  of 
quivers,  the  clash  of  shields,  and  the  tramp  of  the  war-horse.  Had  our 
troops  been  opposed  to  each  other,  mine,  though  less  numerous,  would 
have  been  doubtless  far  more  effective,  from  the  superiority  of  arms  and 
discipline.  But  in  moral  grandeur  what  a  difference  was  there  between 
his  troop  and  mine !  Mine  neither  knew  me  nor  cared  for  me,  though 
they  escorted  me  faithfully.  The  guards  of  Svami-Narayana  were  his 
own  disciples  and  enthusiastic  admirers,  men  who  had  voluntarily 
repaired  to  hear  his  lessons,  who  now  took  a  pride  in  doing  him  honour, 
and  who  would  cheerfully  fight  to  the  last  drop  of  blood  rather  than 
suffer  a  fringe  of  his  garment  to  be  handled  roughly.  In  my  own  parish 
of  Hodnet  there  were  once,  perhaps,  a  few  honest  countrymen  who  felt 
something  like  this  for  me,  but  how  long  a  time  must  elapse  before 
a  Christian  minister  in  India  can  hope  to  be  thus  loved  and  honoured  ! — 
Chap.  XXV. 

It  soon  became  clear  to  Sahajananda  that  the  success  of 
his  future  operations  would  depend  on  the  consolidation  of 
his  party.  He  therefore  retired  with  his  followers  to  the 
secluded  village  of  Wartal,  where  he  erected  a  temple  to 
Narayana  (otherwise  Krishna,  or  Vishnu,  as  the  Supreme 
Being)  associated  with  the  goddess  Lakshml.  It  was  from 
this  central  locality  that  his  crusade  against  the  licentious 
habits  of  the  Vallabhacaryans  was  principally  carried  on. 
His  watchword  seems  to  have  been  '  devotion  to  Krishna 
(as  the  Supreme  Being)  with  observance  of  duty  and  purity 
of  life.' 

He  was  in  the  habit  of  making  periodical  tours  in  Gujarat, 
like  a  bi.shop  visiting  his  diocese.  It  was  in  one  of  these  that 
Svami-Narayana  was  struck  down  by  fever  at  Gadada  in 
Kathifivvar,  where  he  died. 

His  disciples  now  number  more  than  200,000  persons. 
They  arc  broadly  divided  into  two  classes — Sadhus,  'holy  men,' 
and  Grihasthas,  '  householders.'     These  correspond  to  clergy 


Vaishnavism.     Svami-Narayana  Sect.         151 

and  laity,  the  former,  who  are  all  celibates,  being  supported 
by  the  latter.  Those  Sadhus  who  are  Brahmans  are  called 
Brahma-c'arls.  Of  these  there  are  about  300  at  Wartal,  the 
whole  body  of  Sadhus,  or  holy  men,  numbering  about  1,000. 
A  still  lower  order  is  called  Pala.  Of  these  there  are  about 
500. 

The  two  principal  temples  of  the  sect  are  at  Wartal  (for 
Sanskrit  Vrittalaya  or  better  Vratalaya,  'abode  of  religious 
observances '),  about  four  miles  to  the  west  of  the  Baroda 
railway,  and  Ahmedabad,  The  former  is  the  most  important 
and  best  endowed,  but  both  are  presided  over  by  Maharajas, 
neither  of  whom  is  willing  to  yield  the  precedence  to  the 
other.  Jealousies  are  already  springing  up  between  them. 
Probably,  in  process  of  time,  a  schism  will  take  place,  and 
perhaps  two  antagonistic  parties  be  formed,  as  in  the  other 
Vaishnava  sects. 

In  company  with  the  Collector  of  Kaira  I  visited  the  Wartal 
temple  on  the  day  of  the  Purnima,  or  full  moon  of  the  month 
Karttik — the  most  popular  festival  of  the  whole  year.  The 
Maharaja  greeted  us  at  the  Boravi  station  of  the  Baroda 
railway  with  a  choice  of  conveyances — an  elephant,  a  bullock- 
carriage,  a  palanquin  and  four  horses,  with  a  mounted  guard. 
I  chose  the  palanquin  and  found  mj'self  moving  comfortably 
forward,  while  my  companion's  vehicle  oscillated  violently  in 
response  to  the  inequalities  of  the  road.  The  Svami-Narayana 
sect  are  a  wealthy  community,  but  clearly  object  to  spend 
their  money  on  improving  their  access  to  their  chief  temple. 
One  reason  for  this  may  be  that  a  shrine's  inaccessibility  en- 
hances the  merit  of  pilgrimage. 

We  were  met  at  the  entrance  to  the  court  of  the  temple 
(mandir)  by  the  Maharaja  himself,  attended  by  his  minister — 
an  old  Brahmacarl,  or  unmarried  Brahman.  The  temple 
dedicated  to  Lakshml-Narayana,  erected  about  sixty  years 
ago,  is  a  handsome  structure.  It  has  the  usual  lofty  cupolas, 
and   stands   in  the   centre  of  a   courtyard,    formed   by   the 


1^2 


VaishnavisfH.     Svanii-Narayana  Sect. 


residences  of  the  Maharaja  and  his  attendants,  the  great  hall 
of  assembly,  and  other  buildings. 

We  were  conducted  by  the  Maharaja  through  a  crowd  of  at 
least  ten  thousand  persons,  who  thronged  the  quadrangle  and 
all  the  approaches  to  the  temple.  They  were  waiting  to 
be  admitted  to  the  ceremony  of  the  day — the  one  object 
that  had  drawn  so  many  people  to  the  spot — the  privilege  of 
Darsana ;  that  is,  of  seeing  and  adoring  the  idol.  It  was  a 
moment  of  intense  excitement.  Let  a  man  but  bow  down 
before  the  jewelled  image  on  this  anniversary  of  its  mani- 
festation to  the  multitude,  and  the  blessing  of  the  god  attends 
him  for  the  whole  year.  The  vast  concourse  swayed  to  and 
fro  like  the  waves  of  a  troubled  sea,  each  man  vociferating  to 
his  neighbours  in  a  manner  quite  appalling.  I  could  not  help 
thinking  of  our  apparent  helplessness  in  the  surging  crowd, 
and  asking  myself  how  two  solitary  Europeans  would  be  likely 
to  fare,  if,  from  some  accidental  circumstance,  the  religious 
fanaticism  of  a  myriad  of  excited  Hindus  were  to  break  loose 
and  vent  itself  upon  us. 

But  the  ten  thousand  people  were  docile  as  children.  At  a 
signal  from  the  Maharaja  they  made  a  lane  for  us  to  pass,  and 
we  entered  the  temple  by  a  handsome  flight  of  steps.  The 
interior  is  surrounded  by  idol  shrines.  On  the  occasion  of  the 
present  festival  the  principal  images  were  almost  concealed 
from  view  by  rich  vestments  and  jewelry. 

The  two  principal  shrines  have  three  figures.  One  of  them 
has  an  idol  of  Krishna  in  his  character  of  Ran-chor,  '  deliverer 
from  evil,' — a  form  of  Krishna  specially  worshipped  at  Dvarika 
and  throughout  Gujarfxt^— on  the  left  of  the  spectator.  An 
image  of  Narayana  (Vishnu  as  the  Supreme  Being)  is  in  the 
middle  ;  and  Lakshml,  consort  of  Vishnu,  is  on  the  right.     A 


'  So  the  name  was  interpreted  to  me,  but  I  suspect  it  properly  means 
'fight-quitter,'  and  rather  refers  to  Krishna's  declining  to  take  part  in 
the  great  war  of  the  Mahabharata,  between  the  sons  of  Pandu  and 
Dhrita-rashtra. 


Vaishnavism.     Svami-Narayana  Sect.         153 

gong  to  be  struck  in  the  performance  of  worship  (pCija)  hangs 
suspended  before  the  shrine.  The  other  principal  sanctuary  has 
Krishna  in  the  middle,  his  favourite  Radha  on  the  right,  and 
Svami-Narayana,  the  founder  of  the  sect,  on  the  left.  The 
latter  is  here  worshipped,  like  other  great  religious  leaders,  as 
an  incarnation  of  a  portion  of  Vishnu — that  is,  he  is  held  to 
be  one  of  the  numerous  Naravataras  or  descents  of  parts  of 
the  god's  essence  in  the  bodies  of  men.  In  an  adjacent  shrine 
are  his  bed  and  clothes,  the  print  of  his  foot,  and  his  wooden 
slippers. 

We  were  next  conducted  to  the  Sabha-mandapa,  or  great 
hall  of  assembly,  on  one  side  of  the  quadrangle.  Here  about 
three  thousand  of  the  chief  members  of  the  sect,  including  a 
number  of  the  Sadhus  or  clergy,  were  waiting  to  receive  us. 
Chairs  were  placed  for  us  in  the  centre  of  the  hall,  and  before 
us,  seated  on  the  ground,  with  their  legs  folded  under  them 
in  the  usual  Indian  attitude,  were  two  rows  of  about  thirty  of 
the  oldest  Sadhus,  three  or  four  of  whom  had  been  actually 
contemporaries  of  Svami-Narayana.  These  old  men  were 
delighted  when  we  questioned  them  as  to  their  personal 
knowledge  of  their  founder.  The  only  inconvenience  was 
that  they  all  wanted  to  talk  together.  I  felt  indisposed  to 
check  their  garrulity,  but  the  Maharaja  interposed  and  invited 
us  to  another  spacious  hall  in  the  story  above,  where  a  select 
number  of  their  best  Pandits  and  officials  were  assembled  to 
greet  us.  The  regular  Darbar  or  formal  reception  took  place 
in  this  room.  Here  we  were  garlanded  with  flowers,  be- 
sprinked  with  rosewater,  and  presented  with  fruits,  sweet- 
meats, and  pan-suparl,  in  the  usual  manner.  I  found  the  Pandits 
well  versed  in  Sanskrit.  One  or  two  astonished  me  by  the 
fluency  with  which  they  spoke  it,  and  by  their  readiness  in 
answering  the  difficult  questions  with  which  I  tested  their 
knowledge. 

The  Maharaja's  last  act  was  to  conduct  us  to  an  adjacent 
building,  used  as  a  lodging-house    or    asylum  (dharma-sala) 


154  Vaishnavism.     Svami-Narayana  Sat. 

for  the  clergy.  On  the  present  anniversary  at  least  six  hun- 
dred of  these  good  men  were  collected  in  long  spacious 
galleries  called  Asramas  (places  of  retreat).  They  were  all 
dressed  alike  in  plain  salmon-coloured  clothes,  each  man  being 
located  in  a  small  separated  space  not  more  than  seven  feet 
long,  by  three  or  four  broad.  Above  his  head,  neatly  arranged 
in  racks,  were  his  spare  clothes,  water-jar,  &c.  When  we  were 
introduced  to  the  six  hundred  Sadhus  they  were  all  standing 
upright,  motionless,  and  silent.  At  night  they  lie  down  on  the 
hard  ground  in  the  same  narrow  space.  These  holy  men  are 
all  celibates.  They  have  abandoned  all  worldly  ties,  that 
they  may  go  forth  unencumbered  to  disseminate  the  doctrines 
of  their  founder.  They  itinerate  in  pairs,  to  cheer,  support, 
and  keep  watch  on  each  other.  They  travel  on  foot,  under- 
going many  privations  and  hardships,  and  taking  with  them 
nothing  but  a  staff,  the  clothes  on  their  back,  their  daily  food, 
their  water-jar,  and  their  book  of  instructions.  They  may  be 
seen  here  and  there  in  the  ordinary  coarse  salmon-coloured 
dress  of  ascetics,  striving  to  win  disciples  by  personal  ex- 
ample and  persuasion,  rather  than  by  controversy.  Surely 
other  proselyting  societies  might  gain  some  useful  hints  by 
a  study  of  their  method. 

What  I  saw  of  their  whole  system  convinced  me  that  the 
Svami-Narayanas  are  an  energetic  body  of  men,  and  their 
sect  an  advancing  one.  Notwithstanding  the  asceticism  of 
their  clergy,  the  leading  members  of  the  community  have  a 
keen  eye  to  worldly  wealth  and  the  acquisition  of  land,  and  are 
perhaps  not  over-scrupulous  in  carrying  out  their  plans  of  ag- 
grandisement. Without  doubt  the  tendency  of  their  doctrines 
is  towards  purity  of  life,  which  is  supposed  to  be  effected  by 
suppression  of  the  passions  (udasa),  and  complete  devotion  to 
the  Supreme  Being  in  his  names  of  Narayana,  Vishnu,  and 
Krishna.  In  an  honest  desire  to  purify  the  Vaishnava  faith 
the  sect  has  done  and  is  doing  much  good  ;  but  there  can  be 
no  question  that  its  doctrines,  like  its  gods,  its  idols,  and  its 


Vaishnavis77i.     Svami-Narayana  Sect.         155 

sectarian  marks,  arc  part  and  parcel  of  genuine  Vaishnavism. 
At  any  rate  the  system  lacks  the  true  vivifying  regenerating 
force  which  can  alone  maintain  it  in  vigour,  and,  like  other 
Indian  reformations  and  religious  revivals,  is,  I  fear,  destined 
in  the  end  to  be  drawn  back  into  the  all-absorbing  vortex  of 
corrupt  Hinduism. 

After  my  discussion  with  the  Pandits  I  was  presented  with 
their  Siksha-patrT,  or  manual  of  instructions,  written  in  San- 
skrit (with  a  long  commentary),  and  constituting  the  religious 
directory  of  the  sect.  It  was  compiled  by  their  founder,  with 
the  aid  of  a  learned  Brahman  named  Dinanath,  and  is  a  col- 
lection of  two  hundred  and  twelve  precepts — some  original, 
some  extracted  from  Manu  and  other  sacred  Sastras,  and 
many  of  them  containing  high  moral  sentiments  w^orthy  of 
Christianity  itself.  Every  educated  member  of  the  sect  ap- 
peared to  know  the  whole  collection  by  heart  \ 

Some  of  the  verses  were  recited  to  me  by  the  Pandits  in  the 
original  Sanskrit,  and  as  they  are  calculated  to  give  a  fair  idea 
of  the  purer  side  of  modern  Vaishnavism,  I  here  append  a 
literal  translation  of  a  few  selected  specimens.  The  figures 
at  the  end  of  each  precept  refer  to  the  number  of  the  verses  in 
the  Siksha-patri. 

No  disciples  of  mine  must  ever  intentionally  kill  any  living  thing 
whatever,  not  even  a  flea  or  the  most  minute  insect  (ii). 

The  killing  of  any  animal  for  the  purpose  of  sacrifice  to  the  gods 
is  forbidden  by  me.  Abstaining  from  injury  is  the  highest  of  all 
duties  (12). 

Suicide  at  a  sacred  place  of  pilgrimage,  from  religious  motives  or  from 
passion,  is  prohibited  (14). 

No  flesh  meat  must  ever  be  eaten,  no  spirituous  or  vinous  liquor  must 
ever  be  drunk,  not  even  as  medicine  (15). 

All  theft  is  prohibited,  even  under  pretence  of  contributing  to  reli- 
gious objects  (17). 

No  male  or  female  followers  of  mine  must  ever  commit  adulter^'  (18). 

No  false  accusation  must  be  laid  against  any  one  from  motives  of 
self-interest  (20). 

^  The  text  has  been  edited  by  me  with  a  translation,  and  is  published 
in  the  Journal  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society  for  October  1882. 


156         Vaishiavism.     Svami-Ncti'dyana  Sect. 

Profane  language  against  the  gods,  sacred  places,  Brahmans,  holy 
men  and  women,  and  the  Vedas,  must  never  be  used  (21) 

A  truth  which  causes  serious  injury  to  one's  self  or  others  need  not  be 
told.  Wicked  men,  ungrateful  people,  and  persons  in  love  are  to  be 
avoided.     A  bribe  must  never  be  accepted  (26). 

A  trust  must  never  be  betrayed.  Confidence  must  never  be  violated. 
Praise  of  one's  self  with  one's  own  lips  is  prohibited  {yj). 

Holy  men  should  patiently  bear  abusive  language,  or  even  beating, 
from  evil-minded  persons,  and  wish  good  to  them  (201). 

They  should  not  play  at  any  games  of  chance,  nor  act  as  informers  or 
spies  ;  they  should  never  show  love  of  self,  or  undue  partiality  for  their 
relations  (202). 

Wives  should  honour  their  husbands  as  if  they  were  gods,  and  never 
offend  them  with  improper  language,  though  they  be  diseased,  indigent, 
or  imbecile  (159). 

Widows  should  serve  the  god  Krishna,  regarding  him  as  their  only 
husband  (163). 

They  should  only  eat  one  meal  a  day,  and  should  sleep  on  the 
ground  (168). 

Every  day  let  a  man  awake  before  sunrise,  and,  after  calling  on  the 
name  of  Krishna,  proceed  to  perform  the  rites  of  bodily  purifica- 
tion (49). 

Having  seated  himself  in  some  place  apart,  let  him  cleanse  his  teeth, 
and  then,  having  bathed  with  pure  water,  put  on  two  well-washed 
garments,  one  an  under  garment  and  the  other  an  upper  (50). 

My  male  followers  should  then  make  the  vertical  mark  (emblematical 
of  the  footprint  of  Vishnu  or  Krishna)  with  the  round  spot  inside  it 
(symbolical  of  LakshmT)  on  their  foreheads.  Their  wives  should  only 
make  the  circular  mark  with  red  powder  of  saffron  (52). 

Those  who  are  initiated  into  the  proper  worship  of  Krishna  should 
always  wear  on  their  necks  two  rosaries  made  of  Tulsl  wood,  one  for 
Krishna  and  the  other  for  Radha  (4). 

After  engaging  in  mental  worship,  let  them  reverently  bow  down 
before  the  pictures  of  Radha  and  Krishna^,  and  repeat  the  eight- 
syllabled  prayer  to  Krishna  {Sri-Krishnah  saranam  mama^  'Great 
Krishna  is  my  soul's  refuge ')  as  many  times  as  possible.  Then  let  them 
apply  themselves  to  secular  affairs  (54). 

Devotion  to  Krishna  unattended  by  the  performance  of  duties  must 
on  no  account  be  practised  (39). 

The  duties  of  one's  own  class  and  order  must  never  be  abandoned, 
nor  the  duties  of  others  meddled  with  (24). 

Nowhere,  except  in  Jagan-nath-purT,  must  cooked  food  or  water  be 
accepted  from  a  person  of  low  caste,  though  it  be  the  remains  of  an 
offering  to  Krishna  (19). 

^  It  is  a  characteristic  of  the  Svami-Narayana  sect  that  pictures, 
instead  of  images,  are  used  in  some  of  their  temples. 


Vaishnavism.     Svaini-Nardyana  Sect.         157 

Duty  (dliarma)  is  that  good  practice  which  is  enjoined  both  by  the 
Veda  (Sruti)  and  by  the  law  (Smriti)  founded  on  the  Veda.  Devotion 
(bhakti)  is  intense  love  for  Krishna  accompanied  with  a  due  sense  of 
his  glory  (103). 

An  act  promising  good  reward,  but  involving  departure  from  proper 
duties,  must  never  be  committed  {T^. 

If  by  the  great  men  of  former  days  anything  unbecoming  has  been 
done,  their  faults  must  not  be  imitated,  but  only  their  good  deeds  (74). 

If  knowingly  or  unintentionally  any  sin,  great  or  small,  be  committed, 
the  proper  penance  must  be  performed  according  to  ability  (92). 

Every  day  all  my  followers  should  go  to  the  Temple  of  God,  and  there 
repeat  the  names  of  Krishna  (63). 

The  story  of  his  life  should  be  listened  to  with  the  greatest  reverence, 
and  hymns  in  his  praise  should  be  sung  on  festive  days  (64). 

All  males  and  females  who  go  to  Krishna's  temple  should  keep 
separate  and  not  touch  each  other  (40). 

Vishnu,  Siva,  Gana-pati  (or  Ganesa),  ParvatI,  and  the  Sun  ;  these 
five  deities  should  be  honoured  with  worship  (84). 

Narayana  and  Siva  should  be  equally  regarded  as  part  of  one  and  the 
same  Supreme  Spirit,  since  both  have  been  declared  in  the  Vedas  to  be 
forms  of  Brahma  (47). 

On  no  account  let  it  be  supposed  that  difference  in  forms  (or  names) 
makes  any  difference  in  the  identity  of  the  deity  (112). 

That  which  abides  within  the  living  human  spirit  in  the  character  of 
its  internal  regulator  {ant  ary  am  it  ay  a)  should  be  regarded  as  the  self- 
existent  Supreme  Being  who  assigns  a  recompense  to  every  act  (107). 

That  Being,  known  by  various  names — such  as  the  glorious  Krishna, 
Param  Brahma,  Bhagavan,  Purushottama — the  cause  of  all  manifesta- 
tions, is  to  be  adored  by  us  as  our  one  chosen  deity  (108). 

Having  perceived,  by  abstract  meditation,  that  the  spirit  is  distinct 
from  its  three  bodies  (viz.  the  gross,  subtle,  and  causal  bodies)  and  that 
it  is  a  portion  of  the  one  Spirit  of  the  Universe  (Brahmd),  every  man 
ought  to  worship  Krishna  by  means  of  that  soul  at  all  times  (116). 

Towards  him  alone  ought  all  worship  to  be  directed  by  every  human 
being  on  the  earth  in  every  possible  manner.  Nothing  else  except  faith 
(bhakti)  in  him  can  procure  salvation  (113). 

The  philosophical  doctrine  approved  by  me  is  the  Visishtadvaita  (of 
Ramanuja),  and  the  desired  heavenly  abode  is  Goloka.  There  to  worship 
Krishna  and  be  united  with  him  as  the  Supreme  Soul  is  to  be  considered 
salvation  (121). 

The  twice-born  should  perform  at  the  proper  seasons,  and  according 
to  their  means,  the  twelve  purificatory  rites  ^  (sanskara),  the  (six)  daily 

^  Of  these  only  six  are  now  generally  performed,  viz. : — (i)  the  birth- 
ceremony,  or  touching  the  tongue  of  a  new-born  infant  with  clarified 
butter,  etc.  ;  (2)  the  name-giving  ceremony  on  the  tenth  day  ;  (3)  ton- 
sure ;  (4)  induction  into  the  privileges  of  the  twice-born,  by  investiture 


158         VaisJinavism.     Theistic  Sect  of  Kablr. 

duties',  and  the  Sraddha  offerings  to  the  spirits  of  departed  ances- 
tors (91). 

The  eleventh  day  of  the  waxing  and  waning  moon  should  be  observed 
as  fasts,  also  the  birthday  of  Krishna  ;  also  the  night  of  Siva  {Siva-ratri) 
with  rejoicings  during  the  day  (79). 

A  pilgrimage  to  the  Tirthas,  or  holy  places,  of  which  Dvarika 
(Krishna's  city  in  Gujarat)  is  the  chief,  should  be  performed  according 
to  rule.  Almsgiving  and  kind  acts  towards  the  poor  should  always  be 
performed  by  all  (83). 

A  tithe  of  one's  income  should  be  assigned  to  Krishna ;  the  poor 
should  give  a  twentieth  part  (147). 

Those  males  and  females  of  my  followers  who  will  act  according  to 
these  directions  shall  certainly  obtain  the  four  great  objects  of  all  human 
desires— religious  merit,  wealth,  pleasure,  and  beatitude  (206). 

We  now  pass  on  to  the  reformed  theistic  sects  founded  by 
Kablr  and  Nanak. 


Theistic  Sect  foimded  by  Kabir. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  teaching  of  Kablr  exer- 
cised a  most  important  influence  throughout  Upper  India  in 
the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries.  That  it  formed  the 
basis  of  the  Sikh  movement  in  the  Panjab  is  clear  from  the 
fact  that  Kabir^s  sayings  are  constantly  quoted  by  the  Guru 
Nanak  and  his  successors,  the  authors  of  the  sacred  writings 
which  constitute  the  bible  (Grantha)  of  the  Sikh  religion. 

Kablr  was  a  weaver,  and  in  all  probability  a  Musalman  by 
birth.  He  is  believed  to  have  lived  partly  at  Benares  and 
partly  at  Magar,  near  Gorakhpur,  in  the  reign  of  Sikandar 
Shah  Lodi,  between  1488  and  1512.  According  to  a  legend 
he  was  miraculously  conceived  by  the  virgin  widow  of  a 
Brahman.  His  name  Kablr— an  Arabic  word  meaning 
'  Great ' — gives  support  to  the  now  generally  accepted  opinion 


with  the  sacred  thread  ;  (5)  solemn  return  home  from  the  house  of  a 
preceptor  after  completing  the  prescribed  course  of  study ;  (6)  marriage. 
They  will  be  described  in  a  subsequent  chapter. 

'  The  six  daily  duties  (called  Nitya-karman)  according  to  Parasara 
are  :— (i)  bathing  ;  (2)  morning  and  evening  prayer  (sandhya)  ;  (3)  offer- 
ings to  fire  (homa)  ;  (4)  repetition  of  the  Veda  ;  (5)  worship  of  ancestors  ; 
(6)  worship  of  the  gods. 


Vaishnavism.      TJieistic  Sect  of  Kablr.        159 

that  he  was  originally  a  Musalman.  But  he  never  had  any 
sympathy  with  Muhammadan  intolerance  and  exclusiveness. 
It  is  certain  that  in  the  end  he  became  a  pupil  of  Ramananda 
(see  p.  147),  and  for  a  time  a  true  Hindu,  and,  what  is  im- 
portant to  bear  in  mind,  a  true  Vaishnava,  who,  like  other 
Vaishnava  leaders,  had  much  of  the  democratic,  tolerant,  and 
liberal  spirit  of  Buddhism.  No  wonder,  then,  that  he  laboured 
to  free  the  Vaishnava  creed  from  the  useless  and  senseless  in- 
crustations with  which  it  had  become  overlaid.  But  he  did 
more  than  other  Vaishnava  reformers.  He  denounced  all 
idol-worship  and  taught  Vaishnavism  as  a  form  of  strict 
monotheism.  True  religion,  according  to  Kablr,  meant  really 
nothing  but  devotion  to  one  God,  who  is  called  by  the  name 
Vishnu,  or  by  synonyms  of  Vishnu  such  as  Rama  and  Hari, 
or  even  by  the  names  current  among  Muhammadans.  For 
Kablr,  in  his  tolerance,  had  no  objection  to  regard  Muham- 
madans as  worshipping  the  same  God  under  a  different  name. 
In  this  way  he  was  the  first  to  attempt  a  partial  bridging 
of  the  gulf  between  Hinduism  and  Islam.  Nor  did  he  reject 
all  the  pantheistic  ideas  of  Brahmanism. 

We  have  already  noted  how  in  India  all  phases  of  religious 
belief  are  constantly  meeting  and  partially  fusing  into  each 
other.  Polytheism  is  continually  sliding  into  Monotheism, 
Monotheism  into  Pantheism,  and  then  again  into  Polytheism. 
Vaishnavism  and  Saivism  in  their  universal  receptivity  are 
open  to  impressions  from  Islam  ;  Islam,  notwithstanding  its 
exclusiveness,  is  adulterated  with  Vaishnavism  and  Saivism. 
Hence  it  happens  that  Vaishnavism  and  Saivism,  however 
decidedly  they  may  insist  on  the  separate  personality  of  the 
Godhead,  are  perpetually  slipping  back,  like  a  broad  wheel, 
into  the  old  Pantheistic  rut.  And  Islilm,  however  uncom- 
promising its  view  of  the  Unity  of  the  Deity,  has  its  school 
of  Sufi  philosophers,  who  hold  opinions  almost  identical  with 
those  of  the  Vedanta  Pantheists.  It  is  no  matter  of  wonder, 
therefore,  that  Kablr — while  asserting  the  Unity  of  God,  the 


1 60         Vaishnavisni.      Theistic  Sect  of  Kablr. 

Creator  of  the  world,  who  is  admitted  to  have  attributes  and 
qualities  and  to  assume  any  shape  at  will — also  maintained 
that  God  and  man  arc  parts  of  one  essence,  and  that  '  both 
are  in  the  same  manner  everything  that  lives  and  moves  and 
has  its  being.' 

Kablr's  adherents — still  very  numerous  in  Northern  India — 
are  generally  called  Kablr-panthls.  His  doctrines  and  pre- 
cepts are  embodied  in  the  Sukh-nidhan  and  other  Hind! 
works,  as  well  as  in  the  Sikh  Grantha.  His  successors  have 
added  precepts  of  their  own,  many  of  which  are  attributed 
to  Kablr.     His  alleged  sayings  are  innumerable. 

I  here  subjoin  a  few  specimens^ : — 

Hear  my  word  ;  go  not  astray. 

My  word  is  from  the  first.     Meditate  on  it  every  moment. 

Without  hearing  the  word,  all  is  utter  darkness.  Without  finding  the 
gateway  of  the  word,  man  will  ever  go  astray. 

There  are  many  words.     Take  the  pith  of  them. 

Lay  in  provender  sufficient  for  the  road  while  time  yet  serves.  Evening 
comes  on,  the  day  is  flown  and  nothing  will  be  provided. 

With  the  five  elements  is  the  abode  of  a  great  mystery.  When  the 
body  is  decomposed  has  any  one  found  it  1  The  word  of  the  teacher 
is  the  guide. 

That  a  drop  falls  into  the  ocean  all  can  perceive ;  but  that  the  drop 
and  the  ocean  are  one,  few  can  comprehend. 

The  dwelling  of  Kablr  is  on  the  peak  of  a  mountain,  and  a  narrow 
path  leads  to  it. 

No  act  of  devotion  can  equal  truth  ;  no  crime  is  so  heinous  as  false- 
hood ;  in  the  heart  where  truth  abides,  there  is  my  abode. 

Put  a  check  upon  the  tongue  ;  speak  not  much.  Associate  with  the 
wise.     Investigate  the  words  of  the  teacher. 

When  the  master  is  blind,  what  is  to  become  of  the  scholar.?  When 
the  blind  leads  the  blind  both  will  fall  into  the  well. 

It  is  evident  from  these  examples  that  the  key-note  of 
Kabir's  teaching  was  the  duty  of  obeying  spiritual  teachers. 
He  maintained,  in  fact,  that  every  man  was  bound  to  search 
for  a  true  and  trustworthy  spiritual  pastor  (Guru),  and,  having 
found  one,  to  make  him  his  master — to  submit  mind,  con- 
science, and  even  body  to  his  will  and  guidance.     Yet  he 

'  Selected  from  H.  H.  Wilson's  '  Hindu  Religious  Sects.' 


The  Sikh  Sect.  i6i 

never  claimed  infallibility  for  his  own  utterances.  He  con- 
stantly warned  his  own  disciples  to  investigate  for  themselves 
the  truth  of  every  word  he  uttered. 

And  this  leads  us  to  the  religious  system  founded  in  the 
Panjab  by  Kablr's  most  celebrated  follower  Nanak,  about  the 
time  of  the  Emperor  Babar. 

The  Sikh   Theistic  Sect,  founded  by  Ndnak. 

It  is  well  known  that  certain  sects  of  Christians  call  them- 
selves 'brethren,'  to  denote  their  relationship  to  each  other 
and  to  their  Head  as  members  of  a  religious  society  typified 
by  a  family.  Much  in  the  same  way  the  sect  founded  by 
Nanak  styled  themselves  Sikhs  or  '  disciples '  to  express  their 
close  dependence  on  their  teachers  or  Gurus.  For  if  the 
'diapason'  of  Kablr's  doctrine,  and,  indeed,  of  all  Vaishnava 
teaching,  was,  '  Hear  the  word  of  the  Guru,  the  word  of  the 
Guru  is  the  guide,'  much  more  did  Nanak  insist  on  a  similar 
submission.  Literally  interpreted,  the  Sanskrit  terms  Guru 
(derived  from  the  Sanskrit  root  gri,  '  to  utter  words '),  and 
Sishya — corrupted  into  Sikh, — meaning  in  Sanskrit  'one  who 
is  to  be  instructed,'  are  merely  correlatives  like  teacher 
and  taught.  Hence,  the  system  might  as  suitably  be  called 
Guruism  as  Sikhism. 

Great  light  has  recently  been  thrown  on  its  religious  aspect 
by  the  labours  of  Professor  Trumpp,  of  Munich.  He  was 
commissioned  by  our  Government  to  translate  what  is  called 
the  Adi-Granth,  or  first  Sikh  bible,  and  his  w'ork  has  recently 
appeared  with  valuable  introductory  essays.  It  is  not  too 
much  to  say  that  we  are  now  for  the  first  time  able  to  form 
an  accurate  idea  of  the  true  nature  of  one  of  the  most  in- 
teresting and  important  religious  and  political  movements  in 
the  history  of  India. 

In  the  light,  therefore,  of  Professor  Trumpp's  investigations, 
and  my  own  inquiries  at  Lahore,  I  proceed  to  give  a  brief 

M 


1 52  The  Sikh  Sect. 

account  of  Nanak  and  the  characteristic  features  of  Nanak's 

teaching. 

It  appears  to  be  a  well-ascertained  fact  that  this  great 
teacher  was  born,  not  in  Lahore  itself,  but  in  a  neighbour- 
ing village,  called  Talvandi,  on  the  river  Ravi,  not  far  from 
Lahore,  in  the  year  1469,  a  few  years  before  Caitanya  in 
Bengal  and  Martin  Luther  in  Europe.  .  Of  course  the  various 
biographies  of  Nanak — called  Janam-sakhis,  and  written  in 
the  Panjabi  dialect — are  filled  with  myths  and  stories  of 
miraculous  events,  invented  to  justify  the  semi-deification  of 
the  founder  of  the  sect  soon  after  his  death.  That  all  the 
Hindu  gods  appeared  in  the  sky  and  announced  the  birth 
of  a  great  saint  (Bhagat)  to  save  the  world,  is  not  quite 
capable  of  proof.  Nor  can  we  quite  accept  as  a  fact  another 
statement  of  his  chroniclers,  that  one  day  angels  seized  him 
while  bathing,  and  carried  him  bodily  into  the  presence  of 
the  Deity,  who  presented  him  with  a  cup  of  nectar  and 
charged  him  to  proclaim  the  one  God,  under  the  name  of 
Hari,  upon  earth.  But  we  need  not  disbelieve  the  statement 
that  at  an  early  age  he  became  a  diligent  student  of  Vaish- 
nava  religious  books,  and  that  in  his  youth  he  imitated  the 
example  of  other  incipient  reformers,  wandering  to  various 
shrines  in  search  of  some  clue  to  the  labyrinth  of  Hinduism. 
It  is  even  affirmed  that  his  travels  included  the  performance 
of  a  hajj  to  Mecca,  and  that  on  being  reproved  by  the  KazI 
for  lying  down  with  his  feet  towards  the  Ka'bah,  he  replied, 
'  Put  my  feet  in  that  direction  where  the  house  of  God  is  not.' 

Nanak,  however,  laid  no  claim  to  be  the  originator  of  a  new 
religion.  His  teaching  was  mainly  founded  on  that  of  his 
predecessors,  especially  on  that  of  Kabir,  whom  he  constantly 
quoted.  He  was  simply  a  Guru,  or  teacher,  and  his  followers 
were  simply  Sikhs  or  disciples.  But  he  was  also  a  reformer 
who  aimed,  as  other  reformers  had  done  before  him,  at  deli- 
vering Hinduism,  and  especially  the  Vaishnavism  of  Northern 
India,  from  its  incubus  of  caste,  superstition,  and  idolatry. 


The  Sikh  Sect.  163 

Yet  it  does  not  appear  that  Nanak  directly  attacked  caste 
or  denounced  it  in  violent  language.  He  simply  welcomed 
persons  of  all  ranks  as  his  followers,  and  taught  that  the 
Supreme  Being  was  no  '  respecter  of  persons.' 

The  plain  fact  was  that  Nanak  found  himself  in  a  part 
of  India  where  Muhammadans  formed  a  majority  of  the 
population.  Though  himself  originally  a  Hindu,  he  became 
partially  Islamizcd,  to  the  extent  at  least  of  denouncing 
idolatry.  His  idea  was  to  bring  about  a  union  between 
Hindus  and  Muhammadans  on  the  common  ground  of  a 
belief  in  one  God.  Yet  the  creed  of  Nanak  was  really  more 
pantheistic  than  monotheistic.  God,  he  said,  is  Supreme  Lord 
over  all  (Paramesvara).  He  may  be  called  Brahma,  or  by 
other  names,  such  as  Govinda,  etc.,  but  his  especial  name  is 
Hari  (= Vishnu).  This  Supreme  Being  does  not  create  the 
Universe  out  of  nothing,  but  evolves  it  out  of  himself.  It  is 
a  kind  of  expansion  of  his  own  essence  which  takes  place 
for  his  own  amusement  (khela) — such  expansion  being  made 
up  of  the  three  Gunas,  Sattva,  Rajas,  and  Tamas,  in  perfect 
equilibrium  (see  p.  31).  It  is  Illusion  or  Maya  which  dis- 
turbs this  equilibrium  and  causes  the  apparent  separation 
between  God,  the  world,  and  the  human  soul.  All  this  is 
pure  Brahmanism.  We  find  also  that,  except  in  denouncing 
idolatry,  Nanak  differed  very  little  from  a  pure  Vaishnava, 
for  he  taught  that  in  the  present  age  of  the  world  (the  Kali- 
yuga)  the  repetition  of  the  name  of  Hari  is  the  only  means  of 
salvation — notwithstanding  the  merit  to  be  gained  by  bene- 
volent works  and  religious  ceremonies — and  that  the  know- 
ledge of  this  name  is  only  to  be  acquired  through  a  properly 
ordained  teacher  (Guru).  It  is  curious,  too,  that  a  religious 
movement  which  commenced  in  an  effort  to  draw  the  ad- 
herents of  Sikhism  and  Muhammadanism  together,  should 
have  ended  in  exciting  the  bitterest  animosity  between  them. 

Nanak's  death  is  known  to  have  occurred  on  the  loth  of 
October,  1538.      One  of  his  sons  expected  to  succeed  him, 

M  2 


164  ^-^^  Sikh  Sect. 

but  to  the  surprise  of  those  who  were  present  at  his  death,  he 
passed  over  his  own  son  and  nominated  as  second  Guru  his 
disciple  Lahana,  whose  name  had  been  changed  to  Afigada 
because  of  his  devotion.  He  had,  so  to  speak,  given  up  his 
person  (ariga)  to  the  service  of  his  master.  This  appears  to 
have  been  his  chief  merit.  He  was  quite  illiterate,  though 
tradition  makes  him  the  inventor  of  the  peculiar  alphabet 
called  Guru-mukhl  (a  modification  of  the  Devanagarl)  in 
which  the  Sikh  bible  was  written.  Arigada  nominated  Amar- 
das  to  succeed  him  as  third  Guru.  Seven  others  were  ap- 
pointed to  the  succession  in  a  similar  manner.  These  make 
up  the  ten  chief  Gurus  of  the  Sikh  religion.  They  were, 
4.  Ram-das;  5.  Arjun  ;  6.  Har-Govind  ;  7.  Har-Rai ;  8.  Har- 
Kisan  (for  Har-Krishna) ;  9.  Teg-Bahadur ;  and  10.  Govind- 
Sinh. 

Professor  Trumpp  has  given  an  interesting  account  of  each, 
though  he  does  not  vouch  for  the  truth  of  the  native  biogra- 
phies from  which  his  details  are  taken.  One  thing  is  certain, 
that  notwithstanding  the  agreement  of  Sikhs  and  Muhamma- 
dans  in  regard  to  the  great  doctrine  of  the  Unity  of  the  God- 
head, a  violent  political  antagonism  soon  sprang  up  between 
them.  The  truth  was,  that  when  the  Sikhs  began  to  combine 
together  for  the  promotion  of  their  worldly  as  well  as  spiritual 
interests,  they  rapidly  developed  military  tastes  and  abilities. 
This  was  the  signal  for  an  entire  change  of  attitude  between 
Sikhs  and  Muhammadans.  So  long  as  the  former  were  a 
mere  religious  sect  they  were  left  unmolested  ;  but  when  they 
began  to  band  themselves  together  for  purposes  of  political 
aggrandizement,  they  encountered  opposition  and  persecution. 
The  Muhammadan  Government  naturally  took  alarm.  It 
could  not  permit  the  growth  of  an  imperitcm  in  imperio. 
Internecine  struggles  followed.  Both  parties  treated  each 
other  as  deadly  enemies  ;  but  the  hardy  and  energetic  Sikhs, 
though  occasionally  vanquished  and  dispersed,  were  not  to  be 
driven  off  the  field.     Nor  is  it  surprising  that  they  gradually 


The  Sikh  Sect.  165 

developed  a  taste  for  rapine  and  spoliation.  The  decaying 
Mogul  Empire  was  quite  unable  to  hold  its  own  against  their 
aggressiveness.  Ultimately,  they  combined  into  powerful  asso- 
ciations (misals)  under  independent  marauding  chiefs,  seized 
large  tracts  of  land,  and  took  possession  of  the  whole  Panjab. 

The  first  to  inspire  the  Sikhs  with  a  desire  for  political 
union  was  the  fourth  Guru,  Ram-das.  He  was  himself  a 
quiet  unassuming  man,  but  he  understood  the  value  of  money 
and  the  advantage  of  organization.  His  affable  manners 
attracted  crowds  of  adherents,  who  daily  flocked  to  his  house 
and  voluntarily  presented  him  with  offerings.  With  the  con- 
tributions thus  received  he  was  able  to  purchase  the  tank 
called  Amrita-sar  (Sanskrit  Amrita-saras,  'lake  of  nectar'), 
and  build  the  well-known  lake-temple  which  afterwards 
became  a  rallying-point  and  centre  of  union  for  the  whole 
Sikh  community. 

Ram-das  conveyed  his  precepts  to  his  followers  in  the  form 
of  verses.  Many  of  his  stanzas,  together  with  the  sayings  of 
the  previous  Gurus,  and  especially  of  the  first  Guru,  Nanak, 
were  for  the  first  time  collected  by  his  son,  the  fifth  Guru, 
Arjun,  who  was  appointed  by  his  father  to  the  Guruship  just 
before  his  death  in  1581.  From  that  time  forward  the  suc- 
cession was  made  hereditary,  and  the  remaining  five  Gurus 
were  regarded  as  rulers  rather  than  as  teachers. 

With  regard  to  the  fifth  Guru,  Arjun,  it  may  be  observed 
that  he  was  a  worthy  successor  of  his  father.  He  perceived 
that  to  keep  his  Sikhs  or  disciples  together,  it  would  be 
necessary  to  give  them  a  written  standard  of  authority,  and 
some  sort  of  machinery  of  government.  It  is  to  him,  there- 
fore, that  the  Sikhs  owe  the  compilation  of  their  first  bible  — 
called  the  Granth,  or  book  (Sanskrit  Grantha) — and  to  him  is 
due  the  establishment  of  an  organized  system  of  collecting 
a  regular  tax  from  all  adherents  of  the  sect  in  different 
localities.  Moreover,  under  him  the  sacred  tank  and  temple 
founded  by  Ram-das  became  the  nucleus  of  the  sacred  town 


1 66  The  Sikh  Sect. 

Amritsar,  which  is  still  the  metropolis  of  the  Sikh  religion. 
He  was  the  first  Sikh  Pope  who  aimed  at  temporal  as  well 
as  spiritual  power.  It  is  not  surprising,  then,  that  his  death  is 
said  to  have  been  brought  about  by  the  Emperor  Jahanglr. 

The  lives  of  the  sixth,  seventh,  and  eighth  Gurus  may  be 
passed  over  as  unimportant.  The  ninth  Guru,  Teg-Bahadur, 
attracted  the  attention  of  the  Emperor  Aurangzib.  This 
fanatical  monarch,  who  was  bent  on  forcing  the  whole  world 
to  embrace  Islam,  did  not  long  leave  the  Sikhs  undisturbed. 
He  imprisoned  Teg-Bahadur,  and  tortured  him  so  cruelly 
that  the  Guru,  despairing  of  life,  induced  a  fellow-prisoner  to 
put  an  end  to  his  sufferings.  But  Aurangzib's  tyranny  was 
quite  powerless  to  suppress  the  Sikh  movement.  It  was  rather 
the  chief  factor  in  Sikh  progress.  The  murder  of  the  ninth 
Guru  was  the  great  turning-point  in  the  history  of  the  sect. 
Thenceforward  the  Sikhs  became  a  nation  of  fighting  men. 

Teg-Bahadur's  son,  Govind-Sinh,  succeeded  as  tenth  Guru. 
Burning  to  revenge  his  father's  death,  he  formed  the  am- 
bitious design  of  establishing  an  independent  dominion  on  the 
ruins  of  the  Muhammadan  Empire.  He  was  a  man  of 
extraordinary  energy  and  strength  of  will,  but,  born  and 
brought  up  at  Patna,  was  deeply  imbued  with  Hindu  super- 
stitious feelings.  The  better  to  prepare  himself  for  what  he 
felt  was  too  gigantic  a  task  to  be  accomplished  without 
supernatural  assistance,  he  went  through  a  course  of  severe 
religious  austerity.  He  even  so  far  abjured  the  principles  of 
his  predecessors  as  to  propitiate  the  goddess  Durga.  Nay,  it 
is  even  affirmed  that,  instigated  by  the  Brahmans  to  offer  one 
of  his  own  sons  as  a  sacrifice,  and  unable  to  obtain  the 
mother's  consent,  he  allowed  one  of  his  disciples  to  be  be- 
headed as  a  substitute  at  the  altar  of  the  bloody  goddess. 
The  story  is  noteworthy  as  pointing  to  the  probable  preva- 
lence of  human  sacrifice  at  that  time  in  Upper  India. 

In  fact,  it  was  the  tenth  Guru,  Govind,  who  converted  the 
Sikhs  into  a  nation  of  fighting  men.     His  character  was  a 


The  Sikh  Sect.  167 

curious  compound  of  pugnacity,  courage,  superstition,  and 
fanaticism,  If  Nfinak,  the  first  Guru,  was  the  founder  of  the 
Sikh  rehgion,  Govind,  the  tenth  Guru,  was  the  founder  of  the 
Sikh  nationahty.  Many  other  reformers  had  attempted  to 
abolish  caste  as  a  religious  institution,  but  Govind  regarded 
the  evils  of  caste  from  a  purely  political  standpoint.  He 
perceived  that  the  power  exercised  over  the  Hindus  by  the 
Muhammadans  and  other  conquerors  was  mainly  due  to  the 
disunion  caused  by  caste.  He,  therefore,  at  the  risk  of 
offending  the  most  inveterate  Hindu  prejudices,  proclaimed 
social  equality  among  all  the  members  of  the  Sikh  com- 
munity. 

Nor  was  this  all.  He  devised  other  plans  for  uniting  his  fol- 
lowers into  a  distinct  people.  They  were  to  add  the  name  Sinh 
('lion  ')  to  their  other  names.  They  were  to  be  distinguished 
by  long  hair,  they  were  always  to  carry  a  sword — in  token 
of  engaging  in  perpetual  warfare  with  the  Musalmans — to 
refrain  from  smoking  tobacco,  and  to  wxar  short  trowsers, 
instead  of  the  ordinary  Dhoti.  They  w^ere  to  be  called 
Khalsa,  or  the  peculiar  property  of  the  Guru,  and  were  to  be 
admitted  to  discipleship  by  a  kind  of  baptismal  rite  called 
Pahul — that  is  to  say,  sugar  was  dissolved  in  water,  conse- 
crated by  the  repetition  of  certain  texts  taken  from  the 
Granth,  and  stirred  with  a  two-edged  sword.  Then  part  of 
this  decoction  —  euphemistically  styled  nectar  —  was  ad- 
ministered to  each  new  disciple,  and  the  rest  sprinkled  on  the 
head,  mouth,  eyes,  and  other  parts  of  his  body,  while  he 
was  made  to  take  an  oath  not  to  mix  with  certain  ex- 
communicated persons,  not  to  worship  idols,  not  to  bow  to 
any  person  whatever,  except  a  Sikh  Guru,  and  never  to  turn 
his  back  on  a  foe. 

Govind  even  composed  a  second  bible  (Granth),  which  was 
added  as  a  supplement  to  the  first,  and  called  the  book  of 
the  tenth  Guru.  The  precepts  of  Nanak  and  his  successors, 
which  had  been  compiled  by  Arjun,  were  too  full  of  passages 


1 68  The  Sikh  Sect. 

suggestive  of  meekness  and  pacific  feelings.  In  his  own  sup- 
plement Govind  adhered  to  the  religious  teaching  of  the  Adi- 
Granth,  but  he  introduced  precepts  the  direct  object  of  which 
was  to  rouse  the  martial  ardour  of  his  followers ;  he  deliberately- 
substituted  war  for  peace  as  a  religious  duty, — exactly  re- 
versing the  order  followed  in  our  own  Holy  Bible,  which 
advances  from  the  sanction  of  war  in  the  Old  Testament  to 
the  inculcation  of  universal  peace  in  the  New.  Thenceforward 
they  were  to  imitate  the  Muhammadans  —  they  were  to 
spread  their  religion,  not  by  persuasion,  but  by  fire  and 
sword.  Nay,  more,  they  were  to  live  by  the  sword,  and  even 
to  worship  the  sword. 

Govind  was  himself  more  of  a  military  than  a  religious 
leader.  He  was  not  only  a  brave  soldier,  but  a  daring  and 
resolute  commander,  and  his  fighting  propensities  were  in- 
tensified by  his  innate  superstition  and  fanaticism. 

It  need  not,  therefore,  be  matter  of  astonishment  that  the 
greater  part  of  Govind's  own  life  was  passed  in  strife  and 
warfare.  But  he  was  no  match  for  the  Emperor  Aurangzlb, 
who  was  his  equal  in  fanatical  intolerance,  and  greatly  his 
superior  in  ability  and  military  resources.  Forced  to  with- 
draw from  a  hopeless  contest,  he  retired  to  Central  India  and 
built  himself  a  large  residence  in  Malwa  (called  Damdama). 
This  place  is  still  a  central  point  of  resort  for  the  Sikh 
community.  On  the  death  of  Aurangzlb,  Govind  is  said  to 
have  gained  the  goodwill  of  his  successor,  Bahadur  Shah,  and 
even  to  have  accepted  a  military  command  in  the  Dekhan. 
There  a  certain  Pathan,  who  owed  him  a  grudge,  attempted 
his  assassination  and  wounded  him  severely.  He  is  said  to 
have  lingered  some  time,  but  eventually  died  of  his  injuries 
at  a  town  called  Nader,  in  the  valley  of  the  Godavarl  (a.d. 
1708). 

Perhaps  the  most  remarkable  feature  of  the  later  Sikh 
system  was  the  quasi-deification  of  the  sacred  book,  or 
Granth.     Govind  refused  to  appoint  a  successor  to  the  Guru- 


The  Sikh  Sect.  169 

ship,  but  he  well  knew  that  to  maintain  the  Sikh  religion  as  a 
distinctive  creed  some  visible  representative  and  standard  of 
authority  was  needed.  He  therefore  constituted  the  Granth 
a  kind  of  permanent  religious  Guru,  gifting  it  with  personality, 
and  even  endowing  it  with  the  personal  title  Sahib  (Lord). 
^ After  me,'  he  said,  'you  shall  everywhere  mind  the  book  of 
the  Granth-Sahib  as  your  Guru  ;  whatever  you  shall  ask  it 
will  show  you.' 

It  may  be  worth  while,  therefore,  to  inquire  a  little  more 
closely  into  the  nature  of  the  book  thus  exalted  to  the 
position  of  an  infallible  guide,  and  made  to  do  duty  as  a  kind 
of  visible  vicegerent  of  God  upon  earth. 

It  consists,  as  we  have  seen,  of  two  parts,  the  Adi-Granth 
or  first  book,  which  is  the  portion  most  generally  revered,  and 
the  book  of  the  tenth  Guru,  Govind,  which  finds  greater 
favour  with  the  more  fanatical  section  of  the  community.  We 
can  only  here  glance  at  the  form  and  contents  of  the  Adi- 
Granth.  The  translator  (Professor  Trumpp)  considers  it  to 
be  *  an  extremely  incoherent  and  wearisome  book,  the  few 
thoughts  and  ideas  it  contains  being  repeated  in  endless 
variations.'  Nor  will  this  estimate  of  its  merits  be  matter  of 
wonder  when  it  is  found  that  the  Adi-Granth  is,  in  fact,  a 
jumbling  together  of  metrical  precepts  and  apophthegms  sup- 
posed to  have  been  composed  by  at  least  thirty-five  difierent 
authors,  among  whom  were  six  of  the  ten  chief  Gurus  (Nanak, 
Ahgada,  Amar-das,  Ram-das,  Arjun,  and  Teg-Bahadur),  four- 
teen Bhagats  or  saints  (Ramanand,  Kablr,  Plpa,  Ravi-das, 
Dhanna,  Namdev,  Sur-das,  etc.),  and  fifteen  Bhatts  or  pro- 
fessional panegyrists,  whose  names  are  not  worth  recording. 
These  latter  were  employed  to  write  eulogies  on  the  Gurus, 
and  their  panegyrics,  introduced  into  the  Granth,  are  curious 
as  specimens  of  abject  adulation,  though  absolutely  worthless 
in  themselves.  It  is  noticeable  that  one  verse  by  Govind- 
Sinh  has  been  appended  to  the  Adi-Granth,  and  is  regarded 
as  an  integral  portion  of  the  volume. 


170  The  Sikh  Sect 

The  language  in  which  the  whole  work  is  written  is  not 
so  much  the  old  PanjabI  dialect  as  the  old  Hindi.  This 
ancient  dialect  was  probably  used  by  the  Sikh  Gurus,  though 
natives  of  the  Panjab,  that  they  might  be  better  able  to  com- 
mend their  utterances  to  the  whole  Hindu  community.  It 
may  be  conveniently  called  Hindu-!  to  distinguish  it  from  the 
modern  Hindis  The  graphic  system  used  by  the  writers 
was  a  modification  of  the  Devanagarl  alphabet,  called  Guru- 
mukhl,  the  chief  peculiarity  of  which  is  that  it  preserves  the 
forms  of  most  of  the  Sanskrit  letters,  but  changes  their  pho- 
netic power. 

Perhaps  it  is  as  unjust  to  disparage  the  Granth  as  to  exalt 
its  merits  unduly.  To  say  that  it  contains  many  noble 
thoughts  is  as  .true  as  to  say  that  it  abounds  in  much  silly 
twaddle  and  inane  repetition.  Nor  can  it  be  fairly  accused 
of  absence  of  arrangement.  The  verses,  though  unconnected, 
are  arranged  in  six  divisions : — (i)  we  have  the  Japu  (com- 
monly called  Jap-jl),  which  consists  of  introductory  verses  by 
Nanak  ;  (2)  then  follows  the  So-daru  ;  (3)  the  So-purkhu  ; 
(4)  the  Sohila,  three  short  sections,  consisting  chiefly  of 
verses  adapted  for  evening  devotion  ;  lastly  come  (5)  the 
Rags,  verses  sung  in  particular  Rags  or  musical  keys,  thirty- 
one  in  number,  which  constitute  the  great  body  of  the 
Granth,  especially  the  first  four,  called  Sir!  Rag,  Rag  Majh, 
Rag  Gaurl,  and  Rag  Asa  ;  and  (6)  the  Bhog,  consisting  of 
verses  by  Nanak,  Arjun,  and  the  earlier  Gurus,  besides  others 
by  Kabir,  whose  sayings  are  also  scattered  everywhere  through 
every  section  of  the  Granth. 

I  select  a  few  examples  from  different  parts  of  the  book, 
slightly  abridged  and  altered  from  Professor  Trumpp's  ver- 
sion : — 


^  Professor  Trumpp  designates  it  by  this  name.  I  believe  I  was  one 
of  the  first  to  recommend  its  being  so  distinguished,  in  the  Preface  to 
the  first  edition  of  my  Sanskrit-English  Dictionary,  published  by  the 
University  of  Oxford  in  1872. 


The  Sikh  Sect.  171 

At  the  beginning  is  the  True  One. 

The  True  One  is,  O  Nanak  !  and  the  True  One  also  will  be. 

Know,  that  there  are  two  ways  (that  of  Hindus  and  that  of  Musal- 
mans),  but  only  one  Lord. 

By  thyself  all  the  creation  is  produced  ;  by  thyself,  having  created, 
the  whole  is  caused  to  disappear. 

Thou,  O  Hari,  alone  art  inside  and  outside  ;  thou  knowest  the  secrets 
(of  the  heart). 

Mutter  the  name  of  Hari,  Hari,  O  my  heart,  by  which  comfort  is 
brought  about  ;  by  which  all  sins  and  vices  disappear  ;  by  which  poverty 
and  pain  cease. 

Thou  art  I,  I  am  thou,  of  what  kind  is  the  difference  ?  Like  gold  and 
the  bracelet,  like  water  and  a  wave. 

In  the  seven  insular  continents,  the  seven  oceans,  the  nine  regions, 
the  four  Vedas,  the  eighteen  Puranas :  in  all,  thou,  O  Hari,  art  abiding  ; 
in  all  thy  decree,  O  Hari,  is  working. 

By  the  perfect  Guru  the  name  of  Hari  is  made  firm  in  me.  Hari  is 
my  beloved,  my  king.  If  some  one  bring  and  unite  (him  with  mej,  my 
life  is  revived. 

Thou  art  my  father,  my  mother,  my  cousin,  my  brother,  my  protector 
in  all  places.  Then  what  fear  and  grief  can  there  be  to  me  ?  By  thy 
mercy  I  have  known  thee.  Thou  art  my  support,  my  trust.  Without 
thee  there  is  none  other ;  all  is  thy  play  and  thy  arena,  O  Lord ! 

The  Lord  is  my  dear  friend.  He  is  sweeter  to  me  than  mother  and 
father,  sister,  brother,  and  all  friends  ;  like  thee  there  is  none  other, 
O  Lord ! 

Be  united  with  the  Lord  of  the  Universe.  After  a  long  time  this 
(human)  body  was  obtained.  In  some  births  thou  wast  made  a  rock 
and  mountain.  In  some  births  thou  wast  produced  as  a  pot-herb.  In 
the  eighty-four  lakhs  (of  forms  of  existence)  thou  wast  caused  to  wander 
about. 

No  hot  wind  touches  those  who  are  protected  by  the  true  Guru.  The 
Guru  is  the  true  creator. 

Protected  by  the  Guru  he  is  admitted  to  the  true  house  and  palace  (of 
Hari).     Death  cannot  eat  him. 

I  am  continually  a  sacrifice  to  my  own  Guru. 

I  am  become  a  sacrifice  to  my  own  Lord.  From  the  Veda,  from  the 
book  (the  Kuran),  from  the  whole  world  he  is  conspicuous.  The  King 
of  Nanak  is  openly  seen. 

Having  forgotten  all  things  meditate  on  the  One!  Drop  false  conceit, 
oflfer  up  (thy)  mind  and  body  1 

The  following  arc  examples  of  Kablr's  sayings  quoted  in 
the  Granth  : — 

Kabir  says :  I  am  the  worst  of  all,  every  one  is  good  except  me. 
Death,  of  which  the  world  is  afraid,  is  joy  to  my  mind. 


ij2  The  Sikh  Sect. 

The  gate  of  salvation  is  narrow,  not  wider  than  the  tenth  part  of 
a  mustard-seed. 

If  I  make  the  seven  oceans  ink,  if  I  make  the  trees  my  pen,  if  I  make 
the  earth  my  paper,  the  glory  of  God  (Hari)  cannot  be  written. 

Hope  should  be  placed  on  God  (Ram),  hope  in  others  is  useless. 

What  thou  art  doing  to-morrow  do  now  ;  what  thou  art  doing  now  do 
at  once.  Afterwards  nothing  will  be  done  when  death  descends  on 
thy  head. 

It  will  be  sufficiently  evident  from  these  passages  that 
Sikhism  was  a  great  religious  reform,  and  yet  in  its  essence 
very  little  better  than  either  Vaishnavism  or  Brahmanism. 
The  Granth  declares  the  Oneness  of  the  Deity,  but  when  we 
sound  the  depths  of  its  inner  doctrines  we  find  that  this  unity 
is  based  on  a  substratum  of  pantheistic  ideas.  There  is  but 
One  God,  but  He  manifests  Himself  everywhere  and  is  every- 
thing. From  various  passages  of  the  Granth  it  is  clear  that 
the  Vaishnava  names  Hari,  Krishna,  Rama,  and  Govinda  are 
accepted  by  the  Sikhs  as  names  of  the  Supreme.  They  are 
even  willing  to  regard  the  different  divine  personalities  repre- 
sented by  these  names  as  manifestations  of  the  one  Supreme 
Being.  The  point  on  which  they  pride  themselves  is  the 
prohibition  of  image-worship.  Yet  they  make  an  idol  of 
their  own  sacred  book,  worshipping  it  as  truly  as  the  Hindus 
do  their  idols,  dressing  it,  decorating  it,  fanning  it,  putting  it 
to  bed  at  night,  and  treating  it  much  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  idols  of  Krishna  are  treated. 

We  have  seen  that  one  great  distinguishing  feature  of  their 
system  is  that  war  is  made  an  essential  part  of  religion.  To 
indicate  their  belief  in  this  doctrine  they  worship  the  military 
weapons  of  their  Gurus.  In  other  respects  they  conform  to 
the  customs  of  the  Hindus.  They  even  surpass  the  ordinary 
Hindu  in  some  of  his  most  inveterate  superstitions  ;  as,  for 
example,  in  ascribing  divine  sanctity  to  the  cow.  The  killing 
of  a  cow  is,  with  Sikhs,  the  most  heinous  of  crimes  ^  meriting 

^  At  one  time  in  the  Panjab  it  was  infinitely  more  criminal  to  kill 
a  cow  than  to  kill  a  daughter. 


The  SikJi  Sect.  173 

nothing  less  than  capital  punishment  —  not,  however,  from 
any  injunction  to  that  efifect  in  the  Granth,  but  from  simple 
opposition  to  the  Musalmfins,  who,  whenever  they  conquered 
any  district  peopled  by  Hindus,  invariably  slaughtered  cows, 
both  to  ratify  their  victories  and  to  show  their  contempt  for 
Hindu  superstitions. 

Then  again  they  accept  in  all  its  fulness  the  Hindu  doc- 
trine of  metempsychosis,  believing  that  there  are  eighty-four 
lakhs  (or  eight  million  four  hundred  thousand)  of  forms  of 
existence  through  which  all  souls  —  represented  as  flames 
emanating  from  the  great  fountain  of  life — are  liable  to  pass 
before  returning  to  their  source.  These  forms  of  life  are 
supposed  to  consist  of  2,300,000  quadrupeds ;  900,000  aquatic 
animals ;  1,000,000  feathered  animals ;  1,100,000  creeping 
animals  ;  1,700,000  immovable  creatures  (such  as  trees  and 
stones) ;  1,400,000  forms  of  human  beings.  Final  emanci- 
pation can  only  be  achieved  in  this  last  form  of  existence. 

But,  after  all,  the  chief  distinctive  feature  of  Sikhism  is 
that,  accepting  the  Vaishnava  doctrine  of  complete  submis- 
sion to  the  Guru  or  ordained  religious  teacher,  the  Sikh  Guru 
is  made,  so  to  speak,  to  out-Guru  all  other  Gurus.  His  word 
is  to  be  law  in  every  single  matter,  human  and  divine.  First, 
he  baptizes  the  novice  with  a  decoction  of  sugar  and  water, 
which  he  has  previously  consecrated  and  stirred  with  a  two- 
edged  dagger.  Then  he  imparts  the  name  of  Hari  to  his 
disciple  in  a  particular  sacred  text,  which  loses  all  its  efficacy 
unless  orally  communicated.  He  tells  him  to  mutter  it  per- 
petually, enjoins  him  to  fix  his  mind  on  Hari's  excellences, 
and  never  to  rest  until  he  has  merged  his  own  existence  in 
that  of  Hari.  In  return  for  the  instruction  thus  imparted,  the 
disciple,  even  in  the  earliest  period  of  Sikhism,  had  to  render 
a  certain  amount  of  personal  and  even  menial  service  to  his 
Guru.  Then  as  Sikhism  advanced  and  the  Guru  gained 
temporal  as  well  as  spiritual  authority,  he  became  to  his 
disciples  exactly  what  Muhammad  became  to  his  followers 


174 


The  Sikh  Sect, 


in  Arabia — not  only  teacher  and  spiritual  pastor,  but  master, 
military  leader,  and  king.  Finally,  when  he  had  ceased  to 
act  as  a  military  leader,  he  was  regarded  as  an  all-powerful 
mediator  between  God  and  man,  and  even  as  an  actual  god  to 
whom  prayers  were  to  be  addressed  as  to  the  Supreme  Being 
Himself. 

Before  concluding  this  sketch  of  one  of  the  most  interest- 
ing religious  movements  that  has  ever  taken  place  in  India, 
I  ought  to  state  that  I  visited  the  tombs  of  Ranjit  Sinh  and 
Guru  Arjun  at  Lahore,  the  birth-place  of  Govind  at  Patna, 
and  the  sacred  metropolis  or  Jerusalem  of  Sikhism  at 
Amritsar. 

I  noticed  that  the  mausoleum  which  contains  the  ashes  of 
Ranjit  Sinh  at  Lahore  had  idols  of  the  Hindu  gods  Ganesa 
and  Brahma  over  the  entrance.  Inside,  resting  on  a  small 
elevated  platform,  was  the  sacred  Granth,  and  all  around 
were  eleven  small  tombs,  mere  mounds  of  earth,  undfer  which 
are  preserved  the  ashes  of  Ranjit's  eleven  wives,  who  became 
Satis  at  his  death. 

It  may  be  worth  while  here  to  mention  that  it  is  against 
the  practice  of  the  Hindus  to  preserve  the  remains  of  their 
deceased  relatives  in  tombs.  The  body  is  burnt,  and,  how- 
ever illustrious  the  man  may  have  been,  the  ashes  are  scat- 
tered on  sacred  rivers.  The  Sikh  leaders  were,  like  the 
Muhammadans,  ambitious  of  perpetuating  their  own  memo- 
ries after  death.  They  continued  the  Hindu  practice  of 
burning  their  dead,  but,  like  the  Muslims,  spent  larger  sums 
in  erecting  magnificent  tombs  for  the  reception  of  their  own 
ashes  than  in  building  palaces  for  their  own  ease  and  self- 
indulgence  during  life. 

The  temple  dedicated  to  the  tenth  Guru  Govind,  at  Patna, 
was  rebuilt  by  Ranjit  Sinh  about  forty  years  ago.  I  found  it, 
after  some  trouble,  in  a  side  street,  hidden  from  view  and 
approached  by  a  gateway,  over  which  were  the  images  of  the 
first  nine  Gurus,  with   Nanak  in  the  centre.     The  shrine  is 


The  Sikh  Sat.  1 75 

open  on  one  side.  Its  guardian  had  a  high-peaked  turban 
encircled  by  steel  rings  (cakra),  used  as  weapons.  He  was 
evidently  an  Akali — or  'worshipper  of  the  timeless  God' — 
a  term  applied  to  a  particular  class  of  Sikh  zealots  who  be- 
lieve themselves  justified  in  putting  every  opponent  of  their 
religion  to  the  sword.  As  I  entered  the  court  of  the  temple, 
accompanied  by  a  Musalman  friend,  this  Akall  displayed 
great  excitement,  and  I  began  to  fear  an  outburst  of  fana- 
ticism which  might  have  been  dangerous  to  us  both.  Happily 
my  companion  knew  the  man  we  had  to  deal  with,  and,  under 
a  process  of  judicious  handling,  the  fiery  zealot  cooled  down, 
and  even  allowed  us  to  inspect  the  interior  of  the  tenth 
Guru's  shrine. 

On  one  side,  in  a  small  recess — supposed  to  be  the  actual 
room  in  which  Govind  was  born  more  than  two  centuries 
before — were  some  of  his  garments  and  weapons,  and  what 
was  once  his  bed,  with  other  relics,  all  in  a  state  of  decay. 
On  the  other  side  was  a  kind  of  low  altar,  on  which  were 
lying  under  a  canopy  a  beautifully  embroidered  copy  of  the 
Adi-Granth  and  of  the  Granth  of  Govind.  In  the  centre,  on 
a  raised  platform,  were  a  number  of  sacred  swords,  which 
appeared  to  be  as  much  objects  of  worship  as  the  sacred 
books. 

As  to  the  golden  temple  at  Amritsar,  called  Hari-mandira, 
'the  temple  of  ?Iari,'  or  sometimes  Durbar  Sahib,  it  may  be 
said  to  rank  next  to  the  Taj  at  Agra  as  one  of  the  most 
striking  sights  of  India.  To  form  an  idea  of  the  unique 
spectacle  presented  by  this  sacred  locality,  one  must  picture 
to  oneself  a  large  square  sheet  of  water,  bordered  by  a 
marble  pavement,  in  the  centre  of  a  picturesque  Indian  town. 
Around  the  margin  of  this  artificial  lake  are  clustered  nu- 
merous fine  mansions,  most  of  them  once  the  property  of 
Sikh  chiefs  who  assembled  here  every  year,  and  spent  vast 
sums  on  the  endowment  of  the  central  shrine.  One  of  the 
houses  is  occupied  by  Sirdar  Maiigal  Sinh  Ramgharia,  a  well- 


176  TJie  Sikh  Sect. 

known  and  much  esteemed  member  of  the  Sikh  community. 
It  has  two  lofty  towers,  from  one  of  which  I  enjoyed  a  grand 
panoramic  view  of  the  lake  and  its  vicinity — one  of  those 
rare  sights  seen  at  intervals  during  life,  which  fix  themselves 
indelibly  on  the  memory.  In  the  centre  of  the  water  rises 
the  beautiful  temple  with  its  gilded  dome  and  cupolas,  ap- 
proached by  a  marble  causeway.  It  is  quite  unlike  any  other 
place  of  worship  to  be  seen  throughout  India,  and  in  structure 
and  appearance  may  be  regarded  as  a  kind  of  compromise 
between  a  Hindu  temple  and  a  Muhammadan  mosque,  re- 
minding one  of  the  attempted  compromise  between  Hinduism 
and  Islam,  which  was  once  a  favourite  idea  with  both  Kablr 
and  Nanak. 

In  point  of  mere  size  the  shrine  is  not  imposing,  but  its 
proportions  strike  one  as  nearly  perfect.  All  the  lower  part 
is  of  marble,  inlaid,  like  the  Taj,  with  precious  stones,  and 
here  and  there  overlaid  with  gold  and  silver.  The  principal 
entrance  facing  the  causeway  looks  towards  the  north.  The 
interior  is  even  more  gorgeous  than  the  exterior.  On  the 
ground-floor  is  a  well-proportioned  vaulted  hall — its  richly 
gilded  ceiling  ornamented  with  an  infinite  number  of  small 
mirrors,  and  its  walls  decorated  with  inlaid  work  of  various 
designs,  flowers,  birds^  and  elephants.  Four  short  passages, 
entered  by  carved  silver  doors,  one  on  each  of  its  four  sides, 
lead  to  this  vaulted  chamber,  giving  it  a  shape  not  unlike 
that  of  a  Greek  cross.  All  around  on  the  outside  is  a  narrow 
corridor.  In  the  interior,  opposite  the  principal  entrance,  sits 
the  presiding  Guru — his  legs  folded  under  him  on  the  bare 
ground — with  the  open  Granth  before  him.  He  is  attended 
by  other  officials  of  the  temple,  who  assist  him  in  chanting 
the  sacred  texts.  The  Brahmans  maintain  that  God  may 
infuse  his  essence  into  images,  but  they  never  make  an  idol  of 
the  written  Veda,  which,  according  to  their  theory,  is  divine 
knowledge  communicated  orally  to  inspired  sages,  and  by 
them  orally  transmitted — not  written  down.     Sikhism,  on  the 


The  Sikk  Sect.  177 

contrary,  denies  that  God  associates  himself  with  images,  but 
believes  that  he  is  manifested  in  a  written  book  (Granth). 

Hence,  although  the  temple  is  free  from  images,  and  is 
dedicated  to  the  one  God  under  his  name  Hari  (applied 
also  to  Krishna  or  Vishnu),  a  visible  representation  of  the 
invisible  God  is  believed  to  be  present  in  the  sacred  book. 
The  Granth  is,  in  fact,  the  real  divinity  of  the  shrine,  and 
is  treated  as  if  it  had  a  veritable  personal  existence.  Every 
morning  it  is  dressed  out  in  costly  brocade,  and  reverently 
placed  on  a  low  throne  under  a  jewelled  canopy,  said  to  have 
been  constructed  by  Raujit  Sinh  at  a  cost  of  50,000  rupees. 
All  day  long  chowries  are  waved  over  the  sacred  volume, 
and  every  evening  it  is  transported  to  the  second  temple  on 
the  edge  of  the  lake  opposite  the  causeway,  where  it  is  made 
to  repose  for  the  night  in  a  golden  bed  within  a  consecrated 
chamber,  railed  off  and  protected  from  all  profane  intrusion 
by  bolts  and  bars. 

On  the  occasion  of  my  first  visit  to  the  Golden  Temple 
two  or  three  rows  of  temple  officials  and  others  were  seated 
in  a  circle  round  the  vaulted  chamber,  to  the  number  of  about 
a  hundred,  listening  to  the  Granth  which  was  being  chanted 
by  the  presiding  Guru  and  his  assistants  in  a  loud  tone,  with 
an  accompaniment  of  musical  instruments.  The  space  in  the 
centre  was  left  vacant  for  offerings,  and  was  strewn  with 
flowers,  grain,  and  small  coin.  A  constant  line  of  wor- 
shippers, male  and  female,  entered  one  after  the  other,  cast 
down  their  offerings,  bowed  their  heads  to  the  ground  before 
the  Granth  and  before  the  presiding  Guru,  and  reverently 
circumambulated  the  corridor  of  the  temple.  I  noticed  that 
one  poor  old  woman  threw  in  two  small  coins,  and  then, 
bending  low,  touched  the  marble  floor  with  her  forehead. 

On  leaving  the  temple  I  talked  for  a  time  with  an  in- 
telligent Sikh  who  had  received  an  English  education. 
Pointing  to  an  idol  of  Krishna  which  had  been  set  up  on 
the  marorin  of  the  lake,   I  asked   whether  the    Sikhs    were 

N 


I  78  The  Dad2i-panthis. 

returning  to  the  worship  of  Vaishnava  images.  'Yes,'  he 
said,  'we  are  gradually  lapsing  back  into  our  old  habits. 
Our  first  Guru  abolished  caste  and  forbad  the  worship  of 
idols.  Our  tenth  Guru  was  a  thorough  Hindu  at  heart,  and 
by  his  own  example  encouraged  the  return  to  Hindu  practices; 
so  that  of  the  Sikhs  now  found  in  the  Panjab  a  large  number 
adopt  caste,  wear  the  Brahmanical  thread,  keep  Hindu  fes- 
tivals, observe  Hindu  ceremonies  (such  as  the  Sraddha),  and 
even  present  offerings  to  idols  in  Hindu  temples/ 

In  short,  a  careful  observation  of  the  present  condition  of 
Sikhism  must  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  the  Sikh  reforming 
movement,  like  others  which  preceded  it,  is  gradually  being 
drawn  back  into  the  all-absorbing  current  of  ordinary  Vaish- 
navism.  Yet  the  possession  of  a  distinct  rule  of  faith  and 
standard  of  doctrine  in  the  Granth  must  have  a  prophylactic 
effect.  It  must  keep  the  crumbling  elements  of  Sikhism 
together  for  a  time.  Nor  need  the  process  of  reabsorption 
involve  the  obliteration  of  all  distinctive  marks.  For  just 
as  the  strength  of  Hinduism  is  Vaishnavism,  so  the  strength 
of  Vaishnavism  is  its  tolerance  of  an  almost  infinite  diversity 
within  its  own  pale.  Probably,  in  the  end,  the  Granth  itself 
will  be  accepted  by  the  whole  body  of  Vaishnavas  as  a 
recognized  portion  of  their  sacred  literature. 

I  may  here  mention  that  the  last  census  makes  the  number 
of  Sikhs  now  in  India  amount  to  1,853,426,  of  whom  only 
806,9:8  are  females. 

But  Sikhism  was  not  the  only  offshoot  of  the  school  founded 
by  the  great  reformer  Kabir.  He  is  said  to  have  had  twelve 
disciples,  like  his  predecessor  Ramananda ;  and  each  disciple 
is  supposed  to  have  taken  a  distinct  line  fpanthah)  of  his  own, 
and  to  have  originated  a  distinct  school  of  religious  thought. 

Two  of  these  may  be  singled  out  for  special  notice — the 
Dadu-panthTs  and  the  Satnamls. 

The  Dadu-panthls,  as  their  name  implies,  were  founded  by 
Dadu,  a  cotton-cleaner  of  Ahmcdabad,  who  flourished  about 


The  Satmwus.  i  79 

A.D.  t6oo.  They  arc  really  Vaishnava  Thcists  like  the  Sikhs  : 
that  is,  worshippers  of  the  one  God  under  some  of  the  names 
of  Vishnu,  according  to  the  doctrine  of  Kablr,  on  whose 
precepts  the  religious  works  of  the  sect  are  all  founded. 

In  the  same  way  the  Satnamis  are  only  Vaishnava  Theists, 
who  call  the  one  God  by  a  peculiar  name  of  their  own 
(Satnam),  and  base  their  doctrines  like  the  Sikhs  on  Kabir's 
school  of  theology. 

According  to  Professor  H.  H.  Wilson,  the  founder  of  the 
Satnamis  was  Jag-jlvan-das,  a  native  of  Oudh,  whose  samadh 
or  tomb  is  shown  at  Katwa,  a  place  between  Lucknow  and 
Ajudhya.  He  is  said  to  have  flourished  about  the  year  1750, 
and  to  have  written  certain  tracts  in  Hindi,  called  Jnana- 
prakasa,  Maha-pralaya,  and  Prathama-grantha.  When  I  was 
last  in  India  I  heard  of  a  branch  of  the  Satnamis  at  Chatisgarh, 
in  the  Central  Provinces.  They  are  the  followers  of  a  low- 
caste  Chamar  named  Ghasi-das  and  his  son  Balak-das,  who 
flourished  about  the  beginning  of  this  century.  I  was  able 
to  obtain  some  account  of  their  tenets  and  practices  from  the 
missionaries  of  the  Church  Missionary  Society  at  Madras. 
They  are  also  described  in  one  or  two  numbers  of  the  Madras 
Missionary  Record  for  1872. 

Like  other  varieties  of  Hindu  Unitarians,  all  of  whom  mix 
up  pantheistic  ideas  with  monotheistic  doctrines,  they  submit 
implicitly  to  their  Gurus,  regarding  them  as  vicegerents  of 
God  upon  earth,  and  occasionally  as  actual  incarnations  of 
the  Deity. 

The  following  are  a  few  of  their  precepts  and  rules  : — 

God  pervades  the  universe.  He  is  present  in  every  single  thing.  The 
title  Lord  (Sahib)  should  be  added  to  every  object  in  which  Cod  is 
present.  God  is  the  spring  and  source  of  everj'thing  good  and  evil. 
Idols  must  not  be  worshipped.  The  ordained  religious  teacher  (Guru) 
is  holy.  Even  the  water  in  which  his  feet  are  washed  is  holy,  and 
should  be  drunk  by  his  disciples.  Distinctions  of  caste  are  not  to  be 
observed.  Fasts  need  not  be  kept.  Feed  the  poor.  Wound  no  one's 
feelings.  When  the  dead  are  burned  let  no  one  cry  or  weep  ;  let  them 
only  exclaim,  'The  Lord  gave,  and  the  Lord  has  taken  away  !' 

N  2 


CHAPTER  VII. 

Sdkiism,  or  Goddess-worship. 

SaktisM  in  the  simplest  acceptation  of  the  term  is  the 
worship  of  power  or  force  (Sanskrit  Sakti)  personified  as  a 
goddess,  with  a  view  to  the  acquisition  of  magical  and 
supernatural  faculties  through  her  help,  or  to  the  destruc- 
tion of  enemies  through  her  co-operation. 

Of  course  it  is  alleged  by  all  Saiva  and  Vaishnava  secta- 
rians that  the  gods  Siva  and  Vishnu,  as  identified  with  the 
Supreme  Being,  are  themselves  the  source  and  spring  as 
well  as  the  controllers  of  all  the  forces  and  potentialities 
of  nature.  Yet  we  must  bear  in  mind  that  it  is  a  rooted 
idea  with  all  Hindu  theologians,  of  whatever  denomination, 
that  the  highest  condition  of  the  Self-existent  Being  is  a 
condition  of  complete  quiescence  and  inactivity,  as  well  as 
of  complete  oneness,  solitariness,  and  impersonality. 

In  fact  the  theory  of  Brahmanism,  as  we  have  seen,  is 
that  the  one  Self-existent  Being  is  abstract  Spirit,  and  that 
that  Spirit  is  Life  without  anything  to  live  for.  Thought 
without  anything  to  think  about,  Joy  without  anything  to 
be  joyful  about.  But  the  moment  this  one  Self- existent  pure 
Spirit  begins  to  be  conscious  of  existence — to  exercise 
thought  and  feel  joy — it  assumes  personality  and  material 
organization.  It  becomes,  in  fact,  a  personal  God ;  and 
when  this  personal  God  wills  to  put  forth  energy  for  the 
creation  of  a  world  external  to  himself  his  nature  becomes 
duplex.  Of  course  the  absolute  unity  and  strictly  masculine 
character  of  that  nature   might  have    been  preserved  in  his 


Sakiisni,  or  Goddcss-woys/iip.  i8i 

personal  development,  but  the  idea  of  a  kind  of  dualitj-  in 
unity  very  soon  suggested  itself  to  the  Hindu  mind.  He 
was  held  to  possess  a  double  nature,  partly  male  and  partly 
female,  the  female  constituting  his  left  side. 

Then,  again,  this  duality  might  have  been  evenly  balanced, 
or  the  preponderance  of  active  faculties  might  have  been 
assigned,  in  accordance  with  European  ideas,  to  the  male 
side.  We  find,  however,  that  the  Hindus,  in  dividing  the 
divine  nature  into  two  halves,  formed  no  idea  of  any  due 
co-ordination  of  working  power  between  them  as  between 
man  and  woman.  On  the  contrary,  the  male  side  of  the 
god  was  believed  to  relegate  all  his  more  onerous  and 
troublesome  executive  functions  to  his  female  counterpart. 
And  hence  it  has  come  to  pass  that  the  female  side  of 
the  personal  god  is  often  more  honoured  and  propitiated 
than  the  male.  Hence  it  is  that  the  worshipper  is  inclined 
to  turn  with  greater  devotion  to  the  goddess  than  to  the 
god  when  he  supplicates  any  powerful  intervention  on  his 
own  behalf  in  circumstances  of  unusual  exigency  or  peril. 

This  I  believe  to  be  the  true  theory  of  Sfiktism  in  its 
simplest  and  most  general  aspect.  It  is  a  theory  which  is 
certainly  more  closely  connected  with  Saivism  than  with  any 
other  system.  Like  Saivism,  too,  it  traces  back  its  origin  to 
philosophical  Brahmanism,  and  through  Brfdimanism  to  the 
earliest  conceptions  foreshadowed  in  the  Veda. 

Perhaps  the  first  dawn  of  the  idea  of  duality  in  unity  is  to 
be  found  in  the  well-known  29th  hymn  of  the  10th  Mandala 
of  the  Rig-veda,  already  quoted  (p.  13).  In  that  hymn  we 
find  it  stated  that  in  the  beginning  when  there  was  neither 
entity  nor  nonentity — when  in  fact  the  universe  was  about 
to  be  developed — there  arose  in  the  One  Being  Desire  which 
produced  Mind  and  all  existing  things. 

But  the  idea  of  a  universe  proceeding  from  a  female  prin- 
ciple brought  into  union  with  a  male  is  more  fully  developed 
in  other  Vedic  texts. 


1 82  Silk t ism,  or  Goddess-worship. 

Probably  Heaven  (Dyaus)  and  Earth  (Prithivl)  are  the 
most  ancient  of  all  Vedic  gods,  and  from  their  fancied  union 
as  husband  and  wife  the  'other  deities  and  the  whole  Uni- 
verse were  at  first  supposed  to  spring.  They  are  often  de- 
scribed as  parents  (janitrl,  Rig-veda  X.  no.  9;  pitara,  III. 
3.  II  ;  matara,  I.  155.  3).  Or  Heaven  alone  is  called  father 
(pita)  and  Earth  mother  (mata).  On  the  other  hand,  else- 
where in  the  Veda  the  female  deity  Aditi  —  probably  a 
personification  of  the  sky  or  of  universal  nature — seems  to 
stand  alone,  taking  the  place  of  both  Heaven  and  Earth 
as  parent  of  the  deities,  her  counterpart  being  Diti  the 
mother  of  the  demons.  Another  important  goddess  in  the 
Rig-veda  is  the  Dawn  (Ushas,  'Hw?^),  the  Sky's  daughter, 
who  is  of  course  closely  connected  with  the  Sun-god  ;  but 
is  not  described  as  married  to  him,  though  followed  by  him 
as  a  lover  is  pursued  by  his  mistress. 

And  here  it  may  be  noted  as  remarkable  that  the  wives 
of  two  chief  Vedic  gods,  Indra  and  Agni  (Indrani  and 
Agnayl),  are  not  associated  with  their  husbands  or  exalted 
to  equal  rank  as  objects  of  worship.  Nor  is  the  popular 
eoddess  Lakshml,  afterwards  wife  of  Vishnu,  mentioned  at 
all  in  the  Rig-veda  2.  Nor  is  Sarasvatl  held  to  be  the  con- 
sort of  Brahma.  She  is  rather  a  river-goddess,  though  often 
invoked  in  other  characters,  and  once  associated  with  a 
river-god  Sarasvat  (VH.  96.  4,  6).  It  is  only  when  we  come 
to  the  Brahmanas  and  Upanishads  that  we  find  the  duality 
of  the  divine  nature  clearly  enunciated.  For  example,  in  the 
Satapatha-Brahmana  (XIV.  4.  2.  1),  before  noticed,  and 
Brihad-aranyaka  Upanishad  (III.  1)  we  read  to  the  following 

'  Sometimes  spoken  of  as  plural. 

'•^  Dr.  Muir  shows  this  (Sanskrit  Texts,  V.  337),  and  points  out  that 
Lakshml  is  once  used  for  good-fortune  in  Rij^-veda  X.  71.  2,  and  that  in 
Atharva-veda  VII.  115.  i  a  plurality  of  Lakshmls  is  spoken  of.  At 
Madura  I  noticed  carvings  of  eight  different  Lakshmls  who  preside  over 
different  kinds  of  good-luck.  They  are  often  found  over  the  doors  of 
houses. 


Sakiisin,  or  Goddess-worship.  i8 


-^ 


effect :  '  The  One  Being  did  not  enjoy  happiness  when 
alone.  He  was  desirous  of  a  second.  He  divided  himself 
into  two.  Hence  were  husband  and  wife  produced.  There- 
fore was  this  (second)  only  a  half  of  himself  as  the  half  of 
a  split  pea  is.'  It  is  then  related  how  all  beings  were  pro- 
duced by  the  union  of  the  divine  male  and  divine  female. 
Saiikara,  in  his  comment  on  the  Upanishad,  observes,  in 
relation  to  the  above  passage,  '  Because  this  male  half  is 
void  as  wanting  the  female  half,  therefore  after  taking  a 
wife  it  is  completed  by  the  female  half  as  a  split  pea  is  by 
being  joined  with  its  other  half  (see  Roar's  translation). 

If  we  pass  on  to  Manu,  we  find  that  the  Self-existent  is 
described  as  dividing  his  own  substance  and  becoming  half 
male  and  half  female  (I.  5,  etc.). 

Turning  next  to  the  Vedanta  and  Saiikhya  philosophical 
systems,  we  know  that  they  teach  the  separate  existence  of 
eternal  Spirit  called  'the  Self  or  'Male'  on  the  one  side 
and  of  an  eternal  productive  force  or  prolific  germ  (Maya 
or  Prakriti  fem.)  on  the  other.  The  union  of  the  two  was 
believed  to  be  indispensable  before  any  creation  could  result. 

Of  course  ordinary  thinkers  gave  a  concrete  reality  to  all 
such  metaphysical  speculations.  The  Spirit  —  which  was 
called  'the  Self  (Atman)  in  one  system  and  'the  Male' 
(Purusha)  in  the  other — became  in  the  popular  creed  a  sepa- 
rate male  god,  while  the  productive  prolific  force  became  a 
separate  female  god.  The  union  of  the  two  was  expressed  in 
the  later  mythology  by  the  Ardha-narl  or  androgynous  form 
of  Siva — in  which  one  half  or  the  right  side  of  the  god's 
person  is  represented  as  male  and  the  other  half  or  left  side 
as  female  (see  p.  85) — or  more  commonly  by  the  male  and 
female  symbols  (the  Liiiga  and  Yoni)  set  up  in  innumerable 
shrines  throughout  every  part  of  India. 

The  same  doctrine  is  constantly  repeated  in  the  Puranas  ; 
but  even  in  those  writings,  or  at  least  in  those  of  them  which 
are  considered  orthodox,  it  is  to  be  noted  that  although  they 


184  SaktisDi,  or  Goddess-zvorship, 

often  countenance  and  even  promote  Sakta  views  by  making 
the  active  power  of  the  goddess  a  subject  of  special  lauda- 
tion, and  by  according  greater  honour  to  the  female  deity 
(as  for  example  in  placing  the  goddess  first  in  such  com- 
pounds as  LakshmT-Narayanau,  Sita-Ramau,  Radha-Krish- 
nau^),  yet  no  exclusive  or  extravagant  worship  of  the  goddess 
is  inculcated. 

It  was  reserved  for  the  latest  sacred  writings  called  Tantras 
to  identify  all  Force  with  the  female  principle  in  nature,  and 
to  teach  an  undue  adoration  of  the  wives  of  Siva  and  Vishnu 
to  the  neglect  of  their  male  counterparts. 

Practically,  as  we  shall  see,  the  Saktism  of  the  present  day 
is  a  mere  offshoot  of  Saivism.  It  inculcates  an  exclusive 
adoration  of  Siva's  wife  as  the  source  of  every  kind  of  super- 
natural faculty  and  mystic  craft.  This,  in  fact,  is  the  central 
doctrine  and  leading  idea  of  all  Tantrik  writings.  For  the 
Tantras,  believed  as  they  are  to  be  a  direct  revelation  from 
Siva  to  his  wife  Parvati,  are  the  bible  of  Saktism  just  as 
the  Puranas  are  the  bible  of  ordinary  Saivism  and  Vaish- 
navism-.  That  they  are  regarded  by  some  as  of  equal  divine 
authority  with  the  Puranas,  and  even  as  a  kind  of  secondary 
revelation,  is  evident  from  a  passage  in  Kulluka's  commen- 
tary on  Manu  II.  i.  There  he  asserts  that  divine  truth  is  of 
two  kinds  ;  namely,  '  that  revealed  in  the  Vedas  and  that  found 
in  the  Tantras.'  It  is  certain  that  a  vast  proportion  of  the 
inhabitants  of  India,  especially  in  Bengal,  are  guided  in  their 
daily  life  by  Tantrik  teaching,  and  are  in  bondage  to  the 
gross  superstitions  inculcated  in  these  writings. 

And  indeed  it  can  scarcely  be  doubted  that  Saktism  is 
Hinduism  arrived    at  its  worst  and   most    corrupt   stage  of 


'  According  to  Panini  II.  2.  34  (Kasika  Vritti)  the  more  honourable 
should  stand  first  in  a  compound,  as  in  Mata-pitarau,  Sraddha-medhe, 
Brahmana-Kshatriya-Vit-Sudral.i, 

"^  They  are  more  fully  described  at  the  end  of  this  chapter ;  see 
p.  205. 


» 

Sakiis?}i,  or  Goddcss-zvorship.  185 

development.  To  follow  out  the  whole  process  of  evolution 
would  not  be  easy.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  just  as  Hinduism 
resolved  itself  into  two  great  systems — Saivism  and  Vaish- 
navism — so  the  adherents  of  those  two  systems  respectively 
separated  into  two  great  classes.  The  first  are  now  called 
'  followers  of  the  right-hand  path  '  (Dakshina-margls).  These 
make  the  Puranas  their  real  Veda  (nigama),  and  are  devoted 
to  either  Siva  or  Vishnu  in  their  double  nature  as  male  and 
female.  But  they  do  not  display  undue  preference  for  the 
female  or  left-hand  side  of  the  deity;  nor  are  they  addicted 
to  mystic  or  secret  rites.  The  second  class  are  called  '  fol- 
lowers of  the  left-hand  path '  (Vama-margis) :  these  make  the 
Tantras  their  own  peculiar  Veda  (agama),  tracing  back  their 
doctrines  to  the  Kaula  Upanishad,  which  is  held  to  be  the 
original  authority  for  their  opinions  ;  whence  their  system  is 
sometimes  called  Kaula,  as  well  as  Sakta,  and  they  them- 
selves Kaulikas. 

And  it  is  these  left-hand  worshippers  who,  I  repeat,  devote 
themselves  to  the  exclusive  worship  of  the  female  side  of  Siva 
and  Vishnu^;  that  is,  to  the  goddess  Durga  or  Kali  (  =  Amba, 
Devi)  rather  than  to  Siva;  to  Radha  rather  than  to  Krishna; 
to  Slta  rather  than  to  Rama;  but  above  all  to  Amba  or 
Devi,  the  mother-goddess,  identified  with  Siva's  consort,  but 
regarded  in  her  most  comprehensive  character  as  the  great 
Power  (Sakti)  of  Nature,  the  one  Mother  of  the  Universe 
(Jagan-mata,  Jagad-amba) — the  mighty  mysterious  Force, 
whose  function  is  to  direct  and  control  two  quite  distinct 
operations;  namely,  first,  the  working  of  the  natural  appetites 
and  passions,  whether  for  the  support  of  the  body  by  eating 
and  drinking,  or  for  the  propagation  of  living  organisms 
through    sexual    cohabitation  ;    secondly,    the   acquisition   of 

^  The  wives  of  all  the  deities  are  placed  on  their  left  whenever  they 
are  represented  in  juxtaposition.  The  only  exception  is  in  representations 
of  the  marriage  ceremony.  On  that  occasion  the  bride  takes  her  station 
on  the  right  of  the  bridegroom. 


1 86  Saktism,  or  Goddess-woi'sJiip. 

supernatural  faculties  and  magical  powers  (siddhi),  whether 
for  a  man's  own  individual  exaltation  or  for  the  annihilation 
of  his  opponents. 

And  here  it  is  necessary  to  observe  that  the  Sakta  form  of 
Hinduism  is  equipped  with  a  vast  mythological  Personnel  of 
its  own — an  immense  array  of  female  personalities,  consti- 
tuting a  distinct  division  of  the  Hindu  Pantheon. 

Yet  the  whole  array,  spreading  out  as  it  does  into  count- 
less  ramifications,   has   its    root   in   the   wife   of  Siva.      By 
common  consent  she  is  held  to  be  the  source  or  first  point 
of  departure  of  the  entire  female  mythological  system.     She 
also  stands  at  its  head  ;  and  it  is  remarkable  that  in  every 
one  of  the  male  god  Siva's  characteristics,  his  consort  is  not 
only  his  counterpart,  but  a  representation  of  all  his  attributes 
intensified.     We  have  already  pointed  out  (pp.  76-78)  how 
it  came  to  pass  that  the  male  god  gradually  gathered  under 
his  own  personality  the  attributes  and  functions  of  all  other 
divinities,  and   thus  became  to  his  own  special  worshippers 
the  great  god  (Maha-devah)  of  Hinduism.     Similarly  and  in 
a  much  greater  degree  did  his  female  counterpart  become  the 
one  great  goddess  (Maha-devi)  of  the  Sakta  hierarchy  ;  re- 
presenting in  her  own  person  all  other  female  manifestations 
of  Brahma,  Vishnu,  and  Siva,  and  absorbing  all  their  func- 
tions.    For  this  reason  even  the  wives  of  Brahma  and  Vishnu 
were   said    to   be   her   daughters.     As  to  the   opposite   and 
contradictory  qualities  attributed  to  her,  these  arc  no  source 
of  difficulty  to  a  Hindu  mind.     She  is  simply  in  all  respects 
a  duplicate  of  her  husband,  but  a  duplicate  painted  in  deeper 
or  more  vivid  colours. 

And  just  as  Siva  (see  p.  80)  is  at  one  time  white  (Sveta,  sukla) 
both  in  complexion  and  character,  at  another  black  (Kala) ; 
so  his  female  nature  also  became  one  half  white  (whence  one 
of  her  names  Gauri)  and  the  other  half  black  (whence  her 
name  Kali). 

Then,  again,  each    of  these   opposite   characters   became 


Sal:lisni,  or  Goddess-worship.  187 

variously  modified  and  endlessly  multiplied.  The  white  or 
mild  nature  ramified  into  the  Saktis  called  Umfi,  Gaurl, 
Lakshml,  SarasvatT,  etc.  ;  the  black  or  fierce  nature  into 
those  called  Kali,  Durgil,  Candl,  Camunda,  etc.  And  just 
as  Siva  has  1008  names  or  epithets,  so  his  wife  possesses  a 
feminine  duplicate  of  nearly  every  one  of  his  designations. 
At  least  one  thousand  distinct  appellations  are  assigned  to 
her,  some  expressive  of  her  benignant,  some  of  her  ferocious 
character.  Notably  it  is  declared  in  the  Tantras  that  if  any 
one  repeats  eight  of  her  names  containing  the  letter  w,  kings 
will  become  his  servants,  all  men  will  love  him,  and  all  his 
difficulties  come  to  a  happy  termination. 

In  short,  all  the  other  Saktis  came  to  be  included  by  the 
Saktas  under  the  Sakti  or  female  energy  of  Siva,  which 
eventually  developed  into  innumerable  separate  manifestations 
and  personifications. 

These  personifications,  following  the  analogy  of  some  of 
Vishnu's  incarnations,  are  sometimes  grouped  according  to  a 
supposed  difference  of  participation  in  the  divine  energy,  such 
for  example  as  the  full  energy  (purna  sakti),  the  partial  (ansa- 
rupinl),  the  still  more  partial  (kala-rupinl),  and  the  partial  of 
the  partial  (kalansa-rupini),  this  last  including  mortal  women 
in  various  degrees,  from  Brahman  women  downwards,  who  are 
all  worshipped  as  forms  of  the  divine  mother  manifesting 
herself  upon  earth ;  for  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  in  the 
Sakta  creed  every  female  is  a  present  divinity. 

The  more  usual  classification,  however,  begins  with  the 
Maha-vidyas.  These  are  held  to  be  ten  in  number,  that 
number  being  probably  selected  to  match  the  ten  chief  in- 
carnations of  Vishnu.  They  are  called  Maha-vidyas  as  sources 
of  the  goddess's  highest  knowledge ;  that  is  to  say,  of  the 
knowledge  which  confers  preternatural  powers.  They  have 
all  different  attributes,  and  are  thus  designated: — i.  Kali 
(sometimes  called  Syama),  black  in  colour,  fierce  and  irascible 
in  character,    2.  Tara,  a  more  benign  manifestation,  worshipped 


1 88  Saktisni,  or  Goddess-ivorship, 

especially  in  Kasmlr.  3.  ShodasI,  a  beautiful  girl  of  sixteen 
(also  called  Tripura,  worshipped  in  Malabar),  4.  Bhuvanesvarl. 
5.  Bhairavl.  6.  (^hinna-mastaka,  a  naked  goddess  holding  in 
one  hand  a  blood-stained  scimitar  and  in  the  other  her  own 
severed  head,  which  drinks  the  warm  blood  gushing  from  her 
headless  trunk.  7.  Dhumavati,  'in  the  form  of  smoke.' 
8.  Vagala  or  Bagala,  '  having  the  face  of  a  crane.'  9.  Mataiigl, 
'a  woman  of  the  Bhaiigi  caste.'  10.  Kamalatmika.  Of  these 
the  first  two  are  especially  Maha-vidyas,  the  next  five  Vidyas, 
and  the  last  three  Siddha-vidyas. 

The  next  class  of  personifications  or  manifestations  of  the 
goddess  are  the  Matris  or  Matrikas  (or  Maha-matris),  the  great 
mothers  of  the  Universe.  These  are  more  important  than  the 
Maha-vidyas  in  their  connexion  with  the  prevalence  of  Mother- 
worship,  a  form  of  religion  which,  among  the  peasantry  of 
India,  often  takes  the  place  of  every  other  creed.  This  will  be 
more  fully  explained  in  the  chapter  on  tutelary  deities  (p.  209). 

The  Matris  or  Mothers  are — i.  Vaishnavl.  2.  Brahml  or 
Brahman!,  often  represented  with  four  faces  or  heads  like  the 
god  Brahma.  3.  Karttikeyl,  sometimes  called  Mayurl,  4. 
Indranl.  5.  Yaml.  6.  Varahl,  connected  with  the  boar  in- 
carnation of  Vishnu.  7.  Devi  or  IsanI,  represented  with  a 
trident  in  one  hand  as  wife  of  Siva.  8.  LakshmT  ^.  Each  of 
these  divine  Mothers  is  represented  with  a  child  in  her  lap. 

Closely  related  to  the  Mothers  is  a  class  of  female  personi- 
fications called  the  eight  Nayikas  or  mistresses.  These,  of 
course,  are  not  necessarily  mothers.  In  fact  no  other  idea  is 
connected  with  them  than  that  of  illegitimate  sexual  love. 
They  are  called  BalinT,  Kamesvarl,  Vimala,  Aruna,  MedinI, 
Jayinl^  Sarvesvarl,  and  Kaulesi. 

Another   class   of  manifestations    is  that   of  the  Yoginis. 


^  Some  lists  give  nine  Matrikas  (viz.  i.  Narasinhi  ;  2.  Camumla  ;  3. 
Varahl  ;  4.  VarunI  ;  5.  LakshmT ;  6.  Kali  ;  7.  Kapall ;  8.  Kurukulya  ;  9. 
Indranl),  some  sixteen,  and  some  fifty-two,  among  whom  are  enumerated 
Narayanl,  Kaumarl,  Aparajita,  Durga,  Mahesvarl,  etc. 


Sa/v'tism,  or  Goddess-worship.  189 

These  are  sometimes  represented  as  eight  fairies  or  sorceresses 
created  by  and  attendant  on  Durga,  sometimes  as  mere  forms 
of  that  goddess,  sixty  or  sixty-five  in  number,  and  capable  of 
being  multiph"ed  to  the  number  of  ten  millions. 

Other  classes  not  worth  enumerating  are  the  DakinTs  and 
SakinTs.  These  are  simply  female  fiends  or  ogresses  of  most 
repulsive  habits,  and  are  not  so  much  manifestations  of  the 
goddess  as  impish  servants  always  attendant  on  her. 

But  it  is  in  the  form  Kali — the  form  under  which  the 
goddess  is  worshipped  at  Calcutta — that  she  is  most  terrible. 

The  following  is  a  free  translation  of  two  passages  in  the 
Tantras  descriptive  of  Kali's  appearance '  : — 

'  One  should  adore  with  liquors  and  oblations  that  Kali 
who  has  a  terrible  gaping  mouth  and  uncombed  hair ;  who 
has  four  hands  and  a  splendid  garland  formed  of  the  heads 
of  the  giants  she  has  slain  and  whose  blood  she  has  drunk ; 
who  holds  a  sword  in  her  lotus-like  hands ;  who  is  fearless 
and  awards  blessings  ;  who  is  as  black  as  the  large  clouds 
and  has  the  whole  sky  for  her  clothes ;  who  has  a  string 
of  skulls  round  her  neck  and  a  throat  besmeared  with  blood  ; 
who  wears  ear-rings  (consisting  of  two  dead  bodies) ;  who 
carries  two  dead  bodies  in  her  hands  ;  who  has  terrible  teeth 
and  a  smiling  face ;  whose  form  is  awful  and  who  dwells  in 
burning-grounds  (for  consuming  corpses);  who  stands  on  the 
breast  of  her  husband  Maha-deva-.^ 

'A  Kaulika  (i.e.  a  Sakta)  should  worship  KrdI,  who  lives 
amongst  dead  bodies ;  who  is  terrible  and  has  fearful  jaws" ; 
who  has  uncombed  hair  and  a  glowing  tongue  ;  who  constantly 
drinks  blood  ;  who  stands  over  her  husband  Maha-kala  ^  and 

'  All  my  extracts  from  the  Tantras  are  taken  from  the  Hon.  Rao  Bahadur 
Gopal  Hari  Deshmukh's  work  called  Agama-prakasa,  where  the  original 
Sanskrit  of  all  the  passages  quoted  in  this  chapter  will  be  found. 

'^  The  images  of  Kali  at  Calcutta  represent  her  trampling  on  her 
husband.  The  explanation  of  this  is  that  she  had  a  contest  with  Ravaila 
for  ten  years,  and,  having  conquered  him,  became  so  elated  and  danced 
so   energetically  that   the    Universe   would   have  collapsed   under  her 


iQO  Sakiisni,  or  Goddess-worsJiip. 

wears  a  garland  of  skulls  on  her  blood-besmeared  throat ;  who 
has  prominent  breasts ;  who  is  waited  on  by  all  the  Siddhas 
as  well  as  by  the  Siddhls.' 

It  is  this  goddess  who  thirsts  for  blood,  and  especially  for 
human  blood  ;  and  if  the  blood  of  animals  is  not  offered  to  her, 
she  takes  that  of  men.  In  one  of  the  Tantras  kings  are 
directed  to  appease  her  by  the  sacrifice  of  human  beings 
(nara-bali).  The  blood  of  a  tiger  is  said  to  satisfy  her  for 
loo  years,  and  that  of  a  man  for  looo  years. 

It  might  have  been  expected  that  a  creed  like  this,  which 
admits  of  an  infinite  multiplication  of  female  deities  and 
makes  every  woman  an  object  of  worship,  would  be  likely  to 
degenerate  into  various  forms  of  licentiousness  on  the  one 
hand  and  of  witchcraft  on  the  other.  But  if  such  consequences 
might  have  been  anticipated,  the  actual  fact  has  been  worse 
than  the  most  gloomy  pessimist  could  possibly  have  foretold. 
In  Saktism  we  are  confronted  with  the  worst  results  of  the 
worst  superstitious  ideas  that  have  ever  disgraced  and  degraded 
the  human  race.  It  is  by  offering  to  women  the  so-called 
homage  of  sensual  love  and  carnal  passion  \  and  by  yielding 
free  course  to  all  the  grosser  appetites,  wholly  regardless  of 
social  rules  and  restrictions,  that  the  worshippers  of  the  female 
power  (Sakti)  in  Nature  seek  to  gratify  the  goddess  represent- 
ing that  power,  and  through  her  aid  to  acquire  supernatural 
faculties,  and  even  ultimately  to  obtain  union  with  the  Supreme 
Being.  Incredible  as  it  may  appear,  these  so-called  worship- 
pers actually  affect  to  pride  themselves  on  their  debasing 
doctrines,  while  they  maintain  that  their  creed  is  the  grandest 

movements  had  not  Siva  mercifully  interposed  his  body.  When  the 
goddess  found  that  she  was  treading  on  her  husband's  sacred  person, 
she  suddenly  ceased  dancing,  and,  as  is  not  unusual  with  Hindu  women 
when  struck  with  horror  or  shame,  protruded  her  red  tongue  in 
a  manner  not  altogether  consonant  with  European  ideas  of  womanly 
dignity. 

'  The  Tantras  make  no  secret  of  the  fact  that  the  virile  retas  itself  is 
regarded  as  the  offering  most  pleasing  to  the  goddess. 


Sa/:tis?u,  or  Goddess-worship.  191 

of  all  religions,  because  to  indulge  the  grosser  appetites  and 
passions  with  the  mind  fixed  on  union  with  the  Supreme 
Being  is  believed  to  be  the  highest  of  all  pious  achievements. 
Indeed,  according  to  the  distorted  ideas  and  pei-verted  phrase- 
ology of  the  sect,  all  who  are  uninitiated  into  this  system  are 
styled  'beasts'  (pasu  ^),  the  initiated  being  called  Siddha,  'the 
perfect  ones.' 

The  rite  of  initiation  (Diksha)  must  be  performed  by  a  proper 
Guru  or  teacher,  who  does  little  more  than  impart  a  know- 
ledge (upadesa)  of  certain  mystic  texts  and  syllables  to  the 
candidate,  but  the  rite  ought  never  to  take  place  unless  moon, 
planets,  and  stars  are  favourable.  If  a  pupil  can  be  initiated 
during  the  occurrence  of  a  solar  eclipse  wonderful  advantages 
may  be  expected  to  accrue  to  both  teacher  and  taught. 

Of  course,  the  principal  rites,  or  rather  orgies,  of  Sakta  wor- 
.shippers  take  place  in  secret  and  with  closed  doors.  This  secrecy 
is  strictly  in  accordance  with  Tantrik  precept.    Thus,  we  read : — 

'  One  should  not  practise  the  Kaula  system  in  the  presence 
of  the  uninitiated  (Pasus  or  beasts),  any  more  than  one  should 
recite  the  Veda  in  the  presence  of  a  Sudra. 

'One  should  guard  the  Kaula  system  from  the  Pasus  just  as 
one  guards  money  and  grain  and  clothes  from  thieves. 

'  One  should  conceal  the  Kaula  system  like  the  water  in  the 
cocoa-nut  ;  one  should  be  a  Kaula  internally,  a  Saiva  ex- 
ternally, and  a  Vaishnava  when  talking  at  public  meetings. 

'  The  Vedas,  the  Sastras,  and  the  Puranas  are  clearly  like  a 
common  woman  (open  to  all),  but  this  mystical  Saiva  science 
is  like  a  high-born  woman  (kept  secluded).' 

Hence  no  one  who  has  been  initiated  into  the  practices  of 
the  sect  can  be  persuaded  to  speak  of  them  to  the  uninitiated. 
Probably  the  spread  of  education  and  the  influence  exercised 
by  Christian  men  and  women  throughout  India  is  gradually 
operating  to  abolish  all  the  grosser  forms  of  Saktism,  as  they 

^  Another  name  for  an  uninitiated  person  is  Kantaka,  'a  thorn.' 


192  Sa/ciism,  or  Goddess-worship. 

have  already  helped  to  do  away  with  SatI,  female  infanticide, 
human  sacrifices,  and  other  monstrous  evils.  Still  it  is  well 
known  that  even  in  the  present  day,  on  particular  occasions, 
the  adherents  of  the  sect  go  through  the  whole  ceremonial  in 
all  its  revolting  entirety.  When  such  occasions  occur,  a  circle 
is  formed  composed  of  men  and  women  seated  side  by  side 
without  respect  of  caste  or  relationship  \  Males  and  females 
are  held  for  the  particular  occasion  to  be  forms  of  Siva  and 
his  wife  respectively,  in  conformity  with  the  doctrine  pro- 
pounded in  one  of  the  Tantras,  where  Siva  addressing  his  wife 
says;  '  AH  men  have  my  form  and  all  women  thy  form ; 
any  one  who  recognizes  any  distinction  of  caste  in  the  mystic 
circle  (Cakra)  has  a  foolish  soul.' 

The  actual  performance  of  the  ceremonial  then  follows.  It 
consists  of  five  separate  actions  : — i.  The  drinking  of  wine  and 
liquors  of  various  kinds  (madya) ;  2.  the  eating  of  meat 
(mansa) ;  3.  the  eating  of  fish  (matsya) ;  4.  the  eating  of 
parched  or  fried  grain  (mudra) ;  5.  sexual  union  (maithuna)  ^. 

With  regard  to  the  first  four  of  these  acts  the  Tantras 
prescribe  twelve  sorts  of  liquors,  three  sorts  of  wine,  and  three 
sorts  of  meat.  Pulastya,  one  of  the  ancient  sages  who  are  the 
supposed  authors  of  certain  law-books,  also  enumerates  twelve 
kinds  of  liquors,  as  follow: — i.  liquor  extracted  from  the 
bread-fruit  (panasa),  called  Jack-liquor ;  2.  from  grapes 
(draksha) ;  3.  from  date-palm  (kharjuri)  ;  4.  from  common 
palm  (tall),  or  toddy ;    5.  from  cocoa-nut  (narikela) ;   6.  from 

'  The  verse  cited  as  the  authority  for  the  temporary  suppression  of 
caste  at  these  meetings  is  as  follows  : — Prapte  hi  Bhairave  dakre  sarve 
varna  dvijatayah  Nivjitte  Bhairave  dakre  sarve  varnali  pvithak  prithak. 
'  On  entering  the  circle  of  Bhairava,  all  castes  are  on  an  equality  with 
the  best  of  the  twice-born  ;  on  leaving  it,  they  are  again  separated 
into  castes.' 

■''  The  five  acts  are  called  the  five  Ma-karas,  because  the  letter  M 
begins  each  Sanskrit  word.  '  The  assemblage  of  five  things  beginning 
with  the  letter  M,'  says  one  of  the  Tantras,  'satisfies  the  gods.' 

The  term  Mudra,  which  here  means  fried  grain,  is  also  used  to  denote 
mystical  intertwinings  of  the  fingers. 


Saktis7}i,  or  Goddcss-ivorship.  193 

sugar-cane  (ikshu)  ;  7.  from  the  Madhvlka  plant ;  8.  long- 
pepper  liquor  (saira) ;  9.  soap-berry  liquor  (arishta)  ;  10.  honey 
liquor  (madhuka) ;  1 1 ,  a  kind  of  rum  or  liquor  prepared  from 
molasses,  etc.  (called  GaudI,  or  sometimes  Maireya) ;  12.  arrack, 
or  liquor  prepared  from  rice  and  other  grain  (sura,  or  varunl, 
or  paishtl). 

Besides  the  above  twelve  kinds  of  spirituous  drink  others 
are  frequently  mentioned  ;  for  example,  Tahka,  made  from 
wood-apple  ;  Koli,  made  from  the  jujube  ;  and  Kadambarl ;  the 
last  being  the  favourite  beverage  of  Bala-rama. 

The  meat  may  be  that  of  birds,  beasts,  or  fish.  The 
parched  grain  is  eaten,  like  dry  biscuit,  as  a  relish  with  the 
wine  and  spirituous  liquors.  The  drinking  of  each  kind  of 
drink  is  supposed  to  be  attended  with  its  own  peculiar  merit 
and  advantage.  Thus  one  liquor  gives  salvation,  another 
learning,  another  power,  another  wealth,  another  destroys 
enemies,  another  cures  diseases,  another  removes  sin,  another 
purifies  the  soul. 

The  IMatrika-bheda  Tantra  (quoted  by  Dr.  Rajendralala 
Mitra)  makes  Siva  address  his  own  wife  thus  : — '  O  sweet- 
speaking  goddess,  the  salvation  of  Brahmans  depends  on 
drinking  wine.  I  impart  to  you  a  great  truth,  O  mountain- 
born,  when  I  say  that  the  Brahman  who  devotes  himself  to 
drinking  and  its  accompaniments,  forthwith  becomes  a  Siva. 
Even  as  water  mixes  with  water,  and  metal  blends  with 
metal ;  even  as  the  confined  space  in  a  pitcher  merges  into 
the  great  body  of  surrounding  space  on  the  destruction  of  the 
confining  vessel,  and  air  mingles  with  air,  so  does  a  Brahman 
melt  into  Brahma,  the  universal  soul. 

'  There  is  not  the  least  doubt  about  this.  Likeness  to  the 
divinity  and  other  forms  of  beatitude  are  designed  for 
Kshatriyas  and  others ;  but  true  knowledge  can  never  be 
acquired  without  drinking  spirituous  liquor;  therefore  should 
Brahmans  always  drink.  No  one  becomes  a  Brahman  by 
repeating  the  Gayatri,  the  mother  of  the  Vcdas  ;  he  is  called 

O 


1 9^  Saktism,  or  Goddess-zuorship. 

a  Brfihman  only  when  he  has  knowledge  of  Brahma.  The 
ambrosia  of  the  gods  is  their  Brahma,  and  on  earth  it  is 
arrack  (or  liquor  distilled  from  rice) ;  and  because  one  attains 
through  it  the  condition  of  a  god  (suratva),  therefore  is  that 
liquor  called  sura.' 

It  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  that  in  Bengal  some  respect- 
able mothers  of  families,  who  believe  the  above  passage 
to  be  a  direct  revelation  from  Siva  and  who  would  not  dream 
of  drinking  spirits  for  their  own  gratification,  never  say  their 
prayers  without  touching  their  tongues  with  a  pointed  instru- 
ment dipped  in  arrack,  and  never  offer  flowers  to  their  god 
without  sprinkling  them  with  a  few  drops  of  that  liquor. 

In  short,  the  drinking  of  spirituous  liquor  is  as  much  an 
essential  part  of  the  Sakta  ceremonial  as  the  drinking  of  Soma 
juice  was  of  the  Vedic  sacrifices,  and  the  drinking  of  arrack 
(sura)  was  of  the  Sautramani  and  Vajapeya  and  other 
sacrificial  rites.  Indeed  these  ancient  rites  are  appealed  to  in 
the  Tantras  as  a  justification  for  the  Sakta  practice. 

Nor  can  there  be  any  doubt  that  at  one  time  the  drinking 
of  wine  and  spirituous  liquors  was  universal  all  over  India  ^ 


^  This  is  well  shown  by  Rajendralala  Mitra  in  one  of  his  Essays  on 

the   Indo-Aryans.     The  reason  given  for  the  cessation  of  the  custom 

of  wine-drinking  among  the  Hindus  is  that  wine  and  spirituous  liquors 

were  on  two  particular  occasions  cursed  by  the  gods  Sukra  and  Krishna. 

The  cause  of  Sukra's  curse  is  related  in  the  First  Book  of  the  Maha- 

bharata  (ch.  76).     It  appears  that  Kaca,  son  of  Vrihaspati,  had  become 

a  pupil  of  Sukra  A(^arya  with  a  view  to  learn  from  him   the    charm 

(mantra)  for  restoring  dead  men  to  life,  which  none  else  knew.     The 

Asuras  came  to  know  of  this,  and,  dreading  lest  the  pupil  should  obtain, 

and  afterwards  impart,  the  great  secret  to  the  Devas,  assassinated  him, 

and  mixed  his  ashes  with  the  wine  drunk  by  his  tutor,  thus  transferring 

him  to  the  Ijowels  of  Sukra  Acarya.     It  happened,  however,  that  during 

his  pupilage  Kaca  had  won  the  affection  of  Devayanl,  the  youthful  and 

charming  daughter  of  .Sukra  Acarya,  and  that  lady  insisted  upon  her 

father's  restoring  the  youth  to  her,  threatening  to  commit  suicide  if  the 

request  was  not  granted.     Sukra,  unable  to  deny   any   favour   to   his 

daughter,  repeated  the  charm,  and  forthwith,  to  his  surprise,  found  the 

youth  speaking  from  his  own  stomach.     The  difficulty  now  was  to  bring 

the  youth  out,  for  this  could  not  be  accomplished  without  ripping  open 


Sakiisj)!,  or  Goddess-worship.  195 

Some  of  the  gods  were  supposed  to  set  the  example — notably 
Siva  ^  with  his  wife  Durga,  and  Balarama  elder  brother  of 
Krishna  with  his  wife  RevatI — and  we  find  that  one  of  the 
products  of  the  ocean  when  churned  by  the  gods  and  demons 
was  Sura,  or  spirit  distilled  from  rice,  and  that  one  of  the 
seven  seas  encircling  the  earth  was  believed  to  be  composed 
entirely  of  that  liquor-.  Drunkenness  in  fact  became  such  an 
evil  that  to  remedy  it  a  kind  of  temperance  movement 
appears  to  have  been  eventually  organized,  leading  to  a 
complete  reaction  to  the  other  extreme  of  total  abstinence. 
Hence  we  find  that  in  Manu's  time  the  penalty  for  drinking 
spirits  was  to  commit  suicide  by  drinking  them  when  in  a 
boiling  state  (XI.  91). 

In  the  same  way  the  eating  of  meat  was  once  universal  in 
India ;  cows  were  sacrificed  ^  and  the  flesh  eaten,  especially  at 
Sraddhas,  where  the  aroma  of  beef  was  thought  to  be  an 
excellent  aliment  for  the  spirits  of  the  dead.  Manu  allows 
all  sorts  of  animal  food  to  be  eaten,  provided  that  small 
portions  are  first  offered  to  the  gods  and  to  the  spirits  of 

his  tutor's  abdomen.  Sukra  Acarya  thereupon  taught  the  youth  the 
great  charm,  and  then  allowed  himself  to  be  ripped  open,  and  Kaca, 
in  grateful  acknowledgment  for  his  own  restoration  to  life,  immediately 
repeated  the  Mantra  and  resuscitated  his  tutor.  But  Sukra  Acarya, 
seeing  that  it  was  spirituous  liquor  which  had  made  him  swallow  the 
ashes  of  his  pupil,  and  that  pupil  a  Brfdiman,  prohibited  for  ever 
afterwards  the  use  of  any  kind  of  strong  drink  by  Brahmans.  '  From 
this  day  forward,'  said  he,  'the  Brfxhman,  who,  through  infatuation, 
drinks  arrack  (sura)  shall  lose  all  his  religious  merit.  The  wretch  shall 
be  considered  guilty  of  the  sin  of  killing  Brahmans,  and  be  condemned 
in  this  as  well  as  in  a  future  world.' 

With  regard  to  the  curse  pronounced  by  Krishna  on  all  spirituous 
liquor,  the  reason  assigned  for  it  is  that  his  kinsmen  the  Yadavas  had 
brought  great  trouble  on  themselves  by  their  potations. 

'  It  is  said  that  even  in  the  present  day  it  is  not  uncommon  for  the 
adherents  of  the  Sakta  sect  to  sprinkle  spirituous  liquor  instead  of 
water  on  the  lihga  of  Siva. 

'•*  See  Vishnu-purana. 

^  The  Taittiriya-brahmana  mentions  various  ceremonies  at  which 
cattle  had  to  be  sacrificed.  All  this  is  well  shown  by  Dr.  Rajendralala 
Mitra. 

o  a 


196  SakiisDi,  or  Goddess-worship. 

departed  ancestors  (V.  32)  ;  and  Valmiki,  when  he  entertahied 
Vasishtha  at  his  hermitage  (as  described  in  the  Uttara-Rama- 
caritra),  regaled  him  with  the  '  fatted  calf.'  The  Saktas, 
therefore,  have  good  ground  for  asserting  that  in  drinking 
wine  and  eating  meat  they  are  merely  reverting  to  the  practice 
of  their  ancestors.  Yet  it  is  curious  that  they  think  it 
necessary  to  go  through  the  form  of  neutralizing  the  curse 
of  the  great  Sukra  Adarya  (see  note,  p.  194)  before  beginning 
their  potations.  This  they  do  by  repeating  three  particular 
Mantras  and  certain  magical  formulae,  after  drawing  a  triangle 
on  the  ground  with  the  finger  dipped  in  spirituous  liquor. 

The  fifth  act  of  the  Sakta  ceremonial — the  union  of  the 
actual  man  and  woman — is  held  to  be  the  most  important  of 
all.  In  the  minds  of  some  it  is  supposed  to  symbolize  a  great 
cosmical  mystery — the  production  of  the  universe  through 
the  union  of  Purusha  and  Prakriti  (see  pp.  30,  31) — a  mystery 
constantly  kept  before  the  mind  by  the  worship  of  the  two 
stone  symbols  Liiiga  and  Yoni. 

'The  only  salvation,'  says  a  Tantra,  'is  that  which  results 
from  spirituous  liquors,  meat,  and  cohabitation  with  women.' 

The  holy  circle  (sri-cakra)  or  meeting  of  the  members  of  the 
sect  on  solemn  occasions  (represented  by  a  mystical  diagram) 
is  said  to  be  '  the  door  to  the  highest  form  of  salvation — com- 
plete union  with  the  Supreme  Being  (sayujya-mukti).' 

These  circles  are  of  different  kinds  according  to  the  dif- 
ference in  the  rank,  character,  and  occupation  of  the  women 
(saktis)  present  at  them.  Thus  there  is  the  Vlra-c^akra,  the 
Maha-c'akra,  the  Deva-cakra,  the  Raja-cakra,  etc. 

It  is  to  be  observed,  however,  that  all  the  five  acts  we  have 
described  do  not  necessarily  take  place  at  every  meeting. 

Moreover,  besides  the  five  so-called  ceremonial  acts  per- 
formed by  Saktas  at  their  secret  meetings,  there  are  six  other 
methods  of  propitiating  the  goddess  with  a  view  to  acquire 
superhuman  powers  (siddhi) — namely,  by  the  use  of  Mantras, 
Bijas  (or  Vljas),  Yantras,  Kavac'as,  Nyasas,  and  Mudras. 


Maiilras  and  Bijas.  197 

The  subject  of  the  employment  of  Mantras  or  sacred  texts, 
their  use,  misuse,  and  prostitution  to  the  worst  purposes,  is  one 
of  the  greatest  interest  and  importance  in  its  bearing  o\\  the 
past  and  present  rehgious  condition  of  the  Hindus. 

A  Mantra,  as  most  persons  know,  is  properly  a  divinely 
inspired  Vedic  text,  but  with  the  Saktas,  and  indeed  with  the 
great  mass  of  the  Hindus  in  the  present  day,  it  loses  this 
character  and  becomes  a  mere  spell  or  charm.  Even  though 
the  text  be  taken  from  the  Rig,  Yajur  or  Atharva-veda  (p.  8), 
and  be  generally  employed  as  a  prayer  or  invocation  with 
a  definite  meaning  and  application  attached  to  the  words, 
it  becomes  with  the  Saktas  a  mere  collection  of  magical 
letters  and  sounds,  which,  if  properly  uttered  and  repeated 
according  to  prescribed  formularies,  possesses  in  itself  a 
mystical  power  capable  of  causing  every  conceivable  good  to 
one's  self  or  evil  to  one's  enemies. 

The  Bijas,  again,  are  mystical  letters  or  syllables  invented 
for  the  sake  of  brevity  to  denote  the  root  (mula)  or  essential 
part  of  such  Mantras,  or  the  name  of  the  deity  to  whom  it 
may  be  addressed,  or  some  part  of  the  body  over  which  that 
deity  presides.  For  example: — Am  is  said  to  denote  Siva, 
U  Vishnu,  Hrini  the  sun,  Lain  the  earih,  Nam  the  mind, 
Dham  both  the  goddess  Bhuvanesvarl  and  the  tongue.  Nam 
both  the  goddess  Annapurna  and  the  nose,  Pam  the  ear,  etc. 

Perhaps  the  following  abridgment  of  a  passage  from  a  little 
work  by  Pratapa-cfandra  Ghosha  descriptive  of  the  worship  of 
Durga  (Durga-puja)  in  Bengal,  and  giving  directions  for  the 
performance  of  a  preparatory  rite  called  Bhuta-suddhi, '  removal 
of  evil  demons,'  will  give  the  best  idea  of  the  uses  to  which  the 
Bijas  are  applied  : — 

Holding  a  scented  flower,  anointed  with  sandal,  on  the  left  temple, 
repeat  Oin  to  the  Gurus,  Om  to  Ganesa,  Om  to  Durga.  Then  with 
Oinphat  rub  the  palms  with  flowers,  and  clasp  the  hands  thrice  over 
the  head,  and  by  snapping  the  fingers  towards  ten  different  directions, 
secure  immunity  from  the  evil  spirits.  Next  utter  the  Mantra  Ram, 
sprinkle  water  all  around,  and  imagine  this  water  as  a   wall   of  fire. 


198  Mantras  and  Bijas. 

Let  the  priest  identify  himself  with  the  living  spirit  (jlvatman)  abiding 
in  man's  breast,  in  the  form  of  the  tapering  flame  of  a  lamp,  and  conduct 
it  by  means  of  the  Sushumna  nerve  through  the  six  spheres  within  the 
body  upwards  to  the  Divine  Spirit.  Then  meditate  on  the  twenty-four 
essences  in  nature ;  viz.  the  Producer,  Intellect,  Egoism,  the  five 
subtle  and  five  gross  elements,  the  five  external  organs  of  sense,  the 
five  organs  of  action,  with  mind.  Conceive  in  the  left  nostril  the  Mantra 
Yam,  declared  to  be  the  Bija  or  root  of  wind  ;  repeat  it  sixteen  times 
while  drawing  air  by  the  same  nostril  ;  then  close  the  nose  and  hold  the 
breath,  and  repeat  the  Mantra  sixty-four  times. 

Then  meditate  on  the  Matrika,  and  say,  '  Help  me,  goddess  of  speech:' 
Atn  to  the  forehead,  Am  to  the  mouth,  Im  to  the  right  eye,  Im  to  the 
left  eye,  Um  to  the  right  ear,  Uiii  to  the  left  ear,  Im  to  the  right  cheek, 
Im  to  the  left  cheek,  Em  to  the  upper  lip.  Aim  to  the  lower  lip,  Om 
to  the  upper  teeth,  Aum  to  the  lower  teeth,  Tarn,  Tham,  Dam,  Dham, 
and  NaJH  to  the  several  parts  of  the  left  leg,  Pam  to  the  right  side, 
Pham  to  the  left,  Bam  to  the  back.  Mam  to  the  stomach.  Yam  to  the 
heart,  Ram  to  the  right  shoulder,  Lam  to  the  neck-bone,  Vam  to  the 
left  shoulder,  Sa7n  from  the  heart  to  the  right  leg.  Ham  from  the  heart 
to  the  left  leg,  Ksham  from  the  heart  to  the  mouth. 

To  us  it  may  seem  extraordinary  that  intelligent  persons 
can  give  credence  to  such  absurdities,  or  lend  themselves  to 
the  practice  of  superstitions  so  senseless  ;  but  we  must  bear  in 
mind  that  with  many  Hindij  thinkers  the  notion  of  the 
eternity  of  sound — as  propounded  in  Patanjali's  Mahabhashya 
(I.  1.  i)  and  in  the  Piirva-mlmansa  of  Jaimini  —  is  by  no 
means  an  irrational  doctrine.  According  to  the  well-known 
Mimansa  aphorisms  (I.  1.  18-23),  sound  is  held  to  have 
existed  from  the  beginning.  Hence  the  letters  of  the  alphabet, 
being  the  ultimate  instruments  by  which  sounds  are  uttered 
and  thoughts  expressed,  are  considered  to  possess  supernatural 
qualities  and  attributes  and  to  contain  within  themselves  an 
occult  magical  efficacy. 

Let  a  man  only  acquaint  himself  with  the  proper  pronun- 
ciation and  application  both  of  the  Mantras  and  of  their  Bijas 
or  radical  letters,  and  he  may  thereby  propitiate  the  Saktis  so 
as  to  acquire  through  them  superhuman  power  (siddhi) — nay, 
he  becomes,  through  their  aid,  competent  to  accomplish  every 
conceivable  object. 


Mantras  and  Bljas.  199 

At  the  same  time  it  is  to  be  observed  that  for  any  ordinary- 
man  to  make  himself  conversant  with  the  Mantras  is  no  easy 
task  ;  if  at  least  we  are  to  believe  a  statement  in  the  Tantras 
that  the  primary  Mantras  are  seventy  millions  ^  in  number, 
while  the  secondary  are  innumerable. 

This,  no  doubt,  is  an  absurd  exaggeration ;  but  it  must  be 
borne  in  mind  that  only  a  certain  number  are  regarded  as 
efficacious,  and  that  in  the  present  day  there  are  Brahmans 
called  Mantra-sastrls  who  make  a  knowledge  of  these  Mantras 
their  peculiar  business,  learning  them  by  heart  with  the  sole 
object  of  using  them  as  spells  and  charms.  Only  a  few,  how- 
ever, are  believed  to  have  acquired  perfect  mastery  over  the 
most  powerful  Mantras,  which  must  be  pronounced  according 
to  certain  mystic  forms  and  with  absolute  accuracy,  or  their 
efficacy  is  destroyed.  Indeed,  this  kind  of  craft,  though 
supposed  to  endow  the  possessor  of  it  with  very  enviable 
omnipotence,  is  not  unattended  with  unpleasant  risks  and 
drawbacks ;  for  if  in  the  repetition  of  a  Mantra  the  slightest 
mistake  is  made,  either  by  omission  of  a  syllable  or  de- 
fective pronunciation,  the  calamity  which  it  was  intended  to 
bring  down  on  an  enemy  will  inevitably  recoil  on  the  head  of 
the  repeater.  Then,  again,  there  are  various  methods  of  con- 
structing or  neutralizing  the  effect  of  Mantras  used  by  Mantra- 
sastrls  for  the  destruction  or  humiliation  of  others.  The 
difficulty,  of  course,  is  to  find  out  the  exact  Mantra  which  is 
being  employed  for  one's  injury;  but,  having  done  so,  every 
such  Mantra  is  rendered  powerless  by  uttering  it  with  ones 
face  bending  over  a  vessel  full  of  milk  and  then  swallowing 
the  milk,  or  by  writing  it  on  the  leaf  of  a  banian  tree  and 
throwing  the  leaf  into  a  river  ^. 

It  must  be  noted,  too,  that  Mantras  are  not  always  repeated 
without  a  knowledge  of  their  meaning,  though  the  meaning  is 


*  The   same   number  is   given   in   the    Saiva-darsana   of  Madhava'5 
Sarva-darsana-sangraha. 

*  Full  directions  are  given  in  the  Tantra-sara. 


200  Mantras  and  Bijas, 

of  little  importance  compared  with  the  magical  force  of  the 
letters  and  sound.  Their  efficacy  also  is  greatly  increased  if 
they  are  employed  on  lucky  days  or  at  particular  times  and 
seasons.  One  Tantra  teaches  that  Mantras  should  be  repeated 
in  the  month  Caitra  to  give  valour ;  in  Vaisakha  to  obtain 
jewels ;  in  Magha  for  intelligence ;  on  Sundays  for  wealth ; 
on  Mondays  for  tranquillity ;  on  Tuesdays  for  long  life,  and 
so  on.  The  intercalary  month  ought  always  to  be  avoided  \ 
A  few  translations  of  common  Mantras^  are  here  given  : — 

'  Cause  stupefaction  (stambhana)  of  the  enemy,  paralyze  his 
mouth  and  tongue ;  confuse  his  senses,  arrest  his  speech.' 

'  Om — reverence  to  the  Lord — svaha.  Let  everything  be 
auspicious ;  let  everything  opposed  to  me  perish ;  let  every- 
thing be  favourable.'' 

*  Let  Brahman!,  Mahesvari,  Kaumari>  IndranI,  Camunda, 
Varahi,  and  Vaishnavi  protect  my  head,  mouth,  neck,  hands, 
heart,  waist  and  feet,  together  with  my  whole  body;  protect 
me,  O  great  goddess,  Bhadra-Kall.'  This  Mantra  is  worn  as 
a  kavaca  or  amulet ;  see  p.  204. 

'  I  invoke  Bhavani,  accompanied  by  her  husband,  attended 
by  her  subordinates,  by  her  retinue,  by  her  power  (sa-saktika), 
by  her  vehicle,  by  her  weapons,  and  by  all  defensive  things.' 

'  Salutation  to  the  god  of  love  (Kama-deva)  with  his  five 
arrows : — the  arrow  that  puts  to  flight  (dravana-bana) ;  the 
arrow  that  enchants  (sammohana)  ;  the  arrow  that  fascinates 
(vasikarana) ;  the  love-kindling  arrow  (sandlpana) ;  the  love- 
inflaming  arrow  (santapana).' 

The  Gayatrl  or  holiest  text  of  the  Rig-veda  (see  p.  19)  is  of 
course  the  most  potent  of  all  Mantras.  It  is  not  surprising, 
therefore,  that  many  Mantras  employed  by  the  Saktas  are 
composed  after  the  model  of  that  text.  The  following  are 
translations  of  Gayatrl  Mantras  : — 

'  The  Tantra-sara  gives  full  directions  on  this  subject. 
''■  The  original  Sanskrit  text  of  these,  as  of  all  the  extracts  from  the 
Tantras,  will  be  found  in  Gopal  Hari  Deshmukh's  Agama-prakasa. 


]\lantras  and  Bijas.  201 

*  We  meditate  on  that  being  who  has  ashes  for  weapons  ; 
we  think  of  that  being  who  possesses  sharp  teeth  ;  let 
our  fever  (jvara)  incite  him.'  This  is  called  the  fever- 
gayatrl. 

'  We  meditate  on  the  goddess  of  nectar ;  we  think  of  the 
goddess  of  love  (Kamcsvarl) ;  let  our  affection  incite  him.' 
This  is  called  the  nectar-gayatri. 

'  We  meditate  on  the  lord  of  water  (Jalesvara) ;  we  think 
of  the  fish-net ;  let  the  fish  (mina)  incite  him.'  This  is  called 
the  fish-gayatrl. 

'  We  meditate  on  that  being  who  has  a  snare  for  snaring 
animals ;  we  think  of  the  act  of  cutting  off  the  victim's  head 
(Siras-cheda)  ;  let  our  offering  (ball)  incite  him.'  This  is  called 
the  bali-gayatrl. 

No  magician,  wizard,  sorcerer  or  witch  whose  feats  are  re- 
corded in  history,  biography,  or  fable,  has  ever  pretended  to 
be  able  to  accomplish  by  incantation  and  enchantment  half  of 
what  the  Mantra-sastrl  claims  to  have  power  to  effect  by  help 
of  his  Mantras,  For  example,  he  can  prognosticate  futu- 
rity, work  the  most  startling  prodigies,  infuse  breath  into 
dead  bodies,  kill  or  humiliate  enemies,  afflict  any  one  any- 
where with  disease  or  madness,  inspire  any  one  with  love, 
charm  weapons  and  give  them  unerring  efficacy  ^  enchant 
armour  and  make  it  impenetrable,  turn  milk  into  wine,  plants 
into  meat,  or  invert  all  such  processes  at  will.  He  ♦is  even 
superior  to  the  gods,  and  can  make  gods,  goddesses,  imps  and 
demons  carry  out  his  most  trifling  behests.  Hence  it  is  not 
surprising  that  the  following  saying  is  everywhere  current 
in  India  : — 'The  whole  universe  is  subject  to  the  gods;    the 


^  Warlike  weapons  when  thus  charmed  were  supposed  to  possess 
supernatural  powers  and  to  assume  a  kind  of  divine  personality  like 
the  genii  of  the  Arabian  Nights.  Certain  spells  had  to  be  learnt  for 
their  restraint  as  well  as  for  their  use.  When  once  let  loose,  he  only 
who  knew  the  secret  Mantra  for  recalling  them  could  bring  them 
back. 


202  Mantras  and  Bljas. 

gods  are  subject  to  the  Mantras ;   the  Mantras  to  the  Brah- 
mans;  therefore  the  Brahmans  are  our  gods'/ 

Often  these  Mantra-sastrls  are  mere  professional  fortune- 
tellers. I  may  mention  as  an  illustration  that  a  Siikta  Brah- 
man of  this  type  came  to  see  me  one  day  at  Patna.  He  asked 
to  look  at  my  hand,  and,  after  examining  it  for  a  minute,  pro- 
phesied that  my  stay  in  India  would  be  happy  and  prosperous, 
except  that  on  that  day  fortnight  I  should  meet  with  a  great 
disappointment.  I  smiled  at  the  absurdity  of  his  attempting 
to  forecast  my  future  biography,  but  it  is  certain  that  I  only 
met  with  one  unexpected  and  most  mortifying  contretemps 
from  the  day  of  my  departure  from  England  to  the  day  of  my 
return,  and  that  happened  on  the  very  day  predicted.  It 
must  at  least  be  acknowledged  that  the  coincidence  was  re- 
markable. 

I  may  also  give  an  outline  of  a  story  told  to  me  by  a 
Maratha  Pandit,  which  well  illustrates  the  sort  of  use  these 
Mantra-Sastrls  are  supposed  to  make  of  their  magical  powers. 
A  certain  Sakta  Brahman,  named  Bhaskaracarya,  well-versed 
in  the  Mantras,  expected  to  be  asked  to  a  dinner-party  given 
by  a  wealthy  friend,  but  received  no  invitation.  This  so  irri- 
tated the  Brahman  that  he  determined  to  revenge  himself  on 
the  householder  who  had  ventured  so  imprudently  to  slight 
him.  Having  waited  till  the  moment  when  the  assembled 
guests,  with  appetites  stimulated  by  the  fragrance  of  an  array 
of  choice  dishes,  were  about  to  feast  on  the  delicacies  prepared 
for  their  consumption,  he  quietly  in  his  own  house  selected  a 
particular  Mantra,  and  by  simply  repeating  it  turned  all  the 
viands  into  foul  and  fetid  excrementitious  matter.  The  story 
goes  on  to  relate  how  the  householder,  suspecting  the  cause  of 
this  disastrous  metamorphose,  sent  a  messenger  in  hot  haste  to 

^  The  Sanskrit  version  of  this  saying  is  given  incorrectly  by  Dubois 
(p.  77).  I  have  heard  it  variously  rendered.  Perhaps  the  following  is 
the  most  usual : — Uevadhlnani  Jagat-sarvam  Mantradhlnas-ca  Devatal.i 
Mantras-ca  Brahmanadhinah  Brahmana  mama  Devatal.i. 


Yantras,  or  vtystic  diagrams.  203 

implore  the  immediate  presence  of  the  offended  Brahman, 
who  thereupon  becoming  mollified,  obligingly  consented  to 
repeat  another  Mantra  which  reconverted  all  the  filth  into  the 
most  delicious  ambrosial  food. 

We  now  pass  on  to  the  Yantras.  These  are  mystical  dia- 
grams drawn  on  metallic  tablets,  often  of  copper — generally 
combinations  of  triangular  figures  like  the  inverted  triangles 
of  the  Freemasons — supposed  to  possess  occult  powers. 

Each  of  the  goddesses  worshipped  by  the  Saktas  has  a 
Yantra  assigned  to  her,  which  is  sometimes  placed  in  the 
centre  of  a  lotus-diagram,  the  Bija  belonging  to  the  goddess 
being  also  inscribed  a  certain  number  of  times  on  each  petal. 

The  Srl-c'akra  or  holy  circle  is  delineated  in  a  diagram  of 
this  kind  and  then  worshipped.  It  is  supposed  to  represent  the 
orb  of  the  earth,  nine  triangles  being  drawn  within  the  circle 
to  denote  the  nine  continents.  In  the  centre  is  the  drawing 
of  a  mouth,  which  is  believed  to  typify  the  female  energy 
(Sakti)  presiding  over  the  circle.  According  to  some  authori- 
ties, even  the  orthodox  Sankaracarya  must  have  been  a  Sakti- 
worshipper  ;  for  he  is  known  to  have  placed  a  representation 
of  the  Sri-cakra  in  each  of  the  four  monasteries  founded  by 
him. 

These  Yantras  or  mystic  diagrams  are  thought  to  be  quite 
as  effective  in  their  operation  as  the  Mantras,  and  of  course  a 
combination  of  the  two  is  held  to  be  absolutely  irresistible. 
An  enemy  may  be  killed  or  removed  to  some  other  place, 
or  a  whole  army  destroyed,  or  salvation  and  supreme  felicity 
in  a  future  state  obtained  by  drawing  a  six-sided  or  eight- 
sided  diagram  and  writing  a  particular  Mantra  underneath. 
If  this  be  done  with  the  blood  of  an  animaP  killed  sacrificially 
in  a  place  where  corpses  are  burned  (Smasana),  no  power  in 
earth  or  heaven  can  resist  the  terrific  potency  of  the  charm. 

*  It  may  give  an  idea  of  the  depths  of  superstition  and  degradation  to 
which  Saktism  can  lead  if  we  note  here  that  the  retas  of  either  male  or 
female  is  believed  to  be  still  more  efficacious. 


204  Kavacas,  Nyasas,  and  Mudras. 

Triangular,    pentangular,    and     nine-triangled    Yantras    are 
equally  efficacious. 

Let  us  pass  to  a  brief  explanation  of  the  Kavac'as.  I  need  not 
tell  Sanskrit  scholars  that  the  word  kavac'a  properly  means  a 
kind  of  cuirass,  breast-plate,  or  similar  armour  worn  as  a  de- 
fence in  battle.  With  the  Saktas  a  kavac'a  is  an  amulet  or 
talisman  worn  as  a  preservative  against  evil  influences,  or  to 
bring  about  the  attainment  of  some  desired  object.  It  may 
consist  of  a  stone,  piece  of  paper,  metal,  leaf  or  other  material 
on  which  Mantras,  Yantras,  mystical  words  and  formulae  of 
various  kinds  are  inscribed.  It  is  then  worn  on  the  neck, 
breast,  arms,  or  loins,  especially  in  times  of  pestilence  and 
sickness.  Women  often  wear  kavac'as  with  the  object  of 
propitiating  the  goddess,  and  so  inducing  a  condition  of  body 
favourable  to  the  production  of  male  offspring. 

The  term  kavac'a  is  also  applied  to  whole  hymns  when 
they  are  used  as  charms. 

As  to  the  Nyasas,  these  consist  in  mentally  assigning 
various  parts  of  the  body  to  the  protection  of  tutelary  pre- 
siding deities,  with  imposition  of  the  hand  or  fingers,  and 
repetition  of  texts,  mystical  words,  and  syllables. 

The  Mudras,  on  the  other  hand,  are  intertvvinings  of  the 
fingers  supposed  to  possess  an  occult  meaning  and  to  have 
extraordinary  efficacy.  Their  use  as  well  as  that  of  the 
Nyasas  will  be  more  fully  explained  in  treating  of  the  morn- 
ing and  evening  religious  services  called  Sandhya. 

It  may  be  noted  here  that  four  days,  or  rather  nights,  are 
kept  as  principal  festivals  by  the  left-hand  worshippers  : — 
namely,  (i)  the  night  of  the  Krishna-janmashtamT  (see  note  3, 
p.  113),  called  the  Kala-ratri ;  (2)  the  Moha-ratri  or  Kall- 
c'aturdasT,  kept  on  the  fourteenth  day  of  the  second  half  of 
Asvina  ;  (3)  the  Siva-ratri  or  Maha-ratri,  kept  on  the  four- 
teenth of  the  dark  half  of  Magha  ;  (4)  the  Daruni  Ratrih, 
kept  on  the  day  before  the  Holl  festival,  which  is  on  the 
fifteenth  day  of  the  first  half  of  Phalguna.     But  besides  these 


The  Tantras. 


205 


four  festivals,  nine  nights  in  each  of  the  months  Asvina, 
Caitra,  Pausha,  and  Ashadha  arc  also  obscrv^ed  as  holy 
nights.  It  is  declared  that  ceremonies  performed  on  any  of 
these  nights  must  of  necessity  confer  superhuman  power 
(siddhi). 

Before  concluding  this  part  of  our  subject,  it  may  be  well 
to  note  a  few  more  particulars  in  regard  to  the  works  we  have 
so  often  quoted  as  the  chief  authority  for  the  doctrines  and 
practices  of  the  Saktas. 

The  Tantras,  I  repeat,  are  the  bible  of  Saktism.  Like  the 
Puranas,  they  are  sometimes  called  a  fifth  Veda.  Very  com- 
monly, too,  the  name  Agama  is  given  to  them  in  contradis- 
tinction to  Nigama,  which  is  a  general  name  for  the  Vedas. 
Dharmasastras,  Puranas,  and  other  Smriti  works.  Sometimes 
the  authorship  of  the  Tantras  is  attributed  to  Dattatreya,  who 
is  worshipped  as  an  incarnation  of  Brahma,  Vishnu^  and  Siva, 
but  the  more  general  opinion  is  that  they  were  revealed  by 
Siva  alone.  None  of  them  have  as  yet  been  printed  or 
translated  in  Europe.  They  are  said  to  be  sixty-four  in 
number,  without  counting  a  large  collection  of  works  of  a 
Tantrik  character  and  Sakta  tendency.  As  a  general  rule 
they  are  written  in  the  form  of  a  dialogue  between  the  god 
Siva  and  his  wife ;  and  every  Tantra  ought,  like  a  Purana, 
to  treat  of  five  subjects — the  creation,  the  destruction  of  the 
world,  the  worship  of  the  gods,  the  attainment  of  superhuman 
power,  and  the  four  modes  of  union  with  the  Supreme  Spirit 
(sec  p.  41).  In  some  of  the  Tantras  it  is  stated  that  five 
Amnayas  or  sacred  systems  of  teaching  have  been  handed 
down  from  primeval  times,  one  having  issued  from  each  of 
Siva's  five  mouths.  As  a  matter  of  fact  very  few  conform  to 
any  systematic  arrangement.  Those  I  have  examined  seem 
to  be  mere  hand-books  for  the  practices  I  have  attempted  to 
describe,  which  to  Europeans  appear  so  monstrous  that  the 
possibility  of  any  persons  believing  in  their  efficacy  seems  in 
itself  almost  incredible. 


2o6  The   Tantras. 

Whole  Tantras  teach  nothing  but  various  methods  of 
making  use  of  spells  for  acquiring  magical  power. 

Some  give  collections  of  charms  for  making  people  enamoured, 
for  destroying  enemies  and  rivals,  for  producing  or  prevent- 
ing diseases,  for  curing  blindness,  for  injuring  crops.  Others 
simply  describe  the  most  effectual  modes  of  worshipping  the 
Saktis,  Maha-vidyas,  Matris,  Yoginis,  Vatukas,  or  by  whatever 
name  the  innumerable  manifestations  of  Siva  and  his  wife 
may  be  called.  Others  confine  themselves  to  an  explanation 
of  the  Yantras,  Bljas,  and  Mudras  (intertwining  of  the  fingers) 
belonging  to  each  manifestation,  the  places  suited  for  the 
worship  of  each,  the  names  of  trees  and  plants  sacred  to  each, 
or  permeated  by  each,  and  the  days  of  the  year  allotted  to 
each.  Some  few  touch  on  nearly  every  conceivable  topic  of 
human  knowledge,  and  contain  here  and  there  really  interest- 
ing matter. 

Even  alchemy  comes  in  for  a  share  of  attention  ;  but  the 
Sakta  idea  of  this  pretended  science  (Rasayana,  Rasesvara- 
vidya)  is  that  its  only  use  is  to  enable  the  devotee  to  trans- 
mute the  decaying  particles  of  his  body  into  an  incorruptible 
substance  by  means  of  elixirs  compounded  of  mercury  and 
mica,  supposed  to  consist  of  the  essences  of  Siva  and  his  wife 
Gauri  respectively.  After  long  persistence  in  the  practice  of 
swallowing  these  elixirs  the  candidate  for  beatitude  becomes 
immortal,  and  not  merely  united  with  Siva  but  identified 
with  him.  This  kind  of  transubstantiation  is  called  Jlvan- 
mukti,  '  salvation  during  life^.' 

So  little  is  known  about  the  composition  of  the  Tantras 
that  it  is  not  possible  to  decide  at  present  as  to  which  are  the 
most  ancient,  and  still  less  as  to  the  date  to  be  assigned  to 

^  One  of  the  systems  described  by  Madhava  in  his  Sarva-darsana- 
sangraha  is  called  the  Rasesvara-dar-ana,  or  the  system  which  teaches 
the  use  of  mercury  or  quicksilver  as  a  means  of  strengthening  the  body 
and  giving  it  divine  stability  capable  of  resisting  death  and  preventing 
further  transmigration.  Mercury  is  said  to  be  named  Para-da  because  it 
gives  ^ara,  or  the  farther  shore  of  Metempsychosis. 


The   Tantras.  207 

any  of  them.  They  are  all  said  to  be  founded  on  the  Kaulo- 
panishad.  It  may,  however,  be  taken  for  granted  that  the 
extant  treaties  are,  like  the  extant  Puranas.  founded  on  older 
works  ;  and  if  the  oldest  known  Purana  is  not  older  than  the 
sixth  or  seventh  century,  an  earlier  date  can  scarcely  be 
attributed  to  the  oldest  known  Tantra.  Perhaps  the  Rudra- 
yamala  is  one  of  the  most  deservedly  esteemed  and  most 
enc3'clopedic  in  its  teaching^.  Others  are  the  Sakti-sahgama, 
Visva-sara,  Maha-nirvana,  Vira,  Kularnava  (a  text-book  of 
the  Kaulas),  Syama-rahasya,  Sarada-tilaka,  Uddisa,  Kama- 
khya,  Vishnu-yamala. 

Full  as  the  above  works  are  of  doubtful  symbolism,  they 
are  not  all  necessarily  full  of  impure  allusions,  though  the 
teaching  contained  in  the  best  of  them  unquestionably  tends 
towards  licentiousness.  When  they  are  better  known,  their 
connection  with  a  distorted  view  of  the  Saiikhya  philosophy, 
and  with  some  of  the  corrupt  forms  of  Buddhism,  will  pro- 
bably be  made  clearer  Doubtless  they  have  greatly  in- 
fluenced the  later  Buddhist  literature  of  Nepal,  and  would 
probably  throw  much  light  on  the  magical  hymns  and  spells 
of  the  Atharva-veda. 

There  are  also  works  called  Vaishnava  Tantras,  such  as 
the  Gautamlya  and  the  Sanat-kumara,  but  even  in  these 
Siva  is  the  narrator  and  his  wife  the  supposed  listener. 
Moreover  their  teaching,  which  makes  Radha,  the  wife  of 
Krishna,  take  the  place  of  Durga  as  the  chief  object  of 
adoration,  has  the  same  tendency  as  that  of  the  other  Tantras, 
and  equally  leads  to  licentiousness. 

Happily  the  abominations  of  Saktism  are  gradually  dying 
out  in  British  India  ;  and  without  doubt  its  true  character 
has  long  since  forced  itself  on  the  convictions  of  the  more 
highly  educated  Hindus. 


^  It   is  said   to   consist   of  100,000  verses.     A   section   of  it,  called 
Jati-mala,  treating  of  caste,  has  been  printed  at  Calcutta. 


2o8  The  Tantras. 

Nor  can  the  power  of  the  Mantra-sastrls  stand  against  the 
moral  and  intellectual  revolution  which  is  slowly  but  surely 
upheaving  the  whole  fabric  of  superstition.  That  power  is 
already  much  weakened,  and  the  field  for  its  exercise  among 
a  people  steeped  for  centuries  in  debasing  and  degrading  re- 
ligious and  social  ideas  is  daily  becoming  narrower.  Still  in 
most  of  the  native  States,  where  all  the  grosser  forms  of 
Hinduism  are  still  rampant,  the  whole  system  is  as  firmly 
established  as  ever.  Even  those  in  high  positions,  who  have 
no  faith  in  it  themselves,  find  themselves  unable  to  offend 
the  prejudices  of  their  subordinates  by  venturing  to  engage 
in  any  work  or  perform  the  most  ordinary  act  without  the 
sanction  of  crafty  Brahmans  claiming  divine  authority  and 
professing  to  work  miracles  through  their  knowledge  and 
application  of  the  Mantras. 

Well  may  the  enlightened  Brahman  so  often  before  quoted 
(see  p.  189)  give  expression  to  his  indignation  thus  : — 

'  All  sensible  people  ought  to  say  to  the  Mantra-sastrls, 
We  have  suffered  much  misery  through  your  deceit,  we  have 
been  taxed  very  heavily  by  you,  and  you  have  involved  us  in 
the  results  of  all  your  wickedness.     It  is  true  your  ancestors 
had  some  knowledge  of  different  sciences  and  imparted  some 
of  that  knowledge  to  us.     In  return  for  these  benefits  we  have 
fed  you  and  supported   you   and   promoted  your   interests. 
When  you  found  your  power  established  over  us  you  aban- 
doned the  duty  of  seeking  after  knowledge,  and  worked  only 
mischief.     Your  teaching  is  now  a  mere  reflection  of  your 
ignorance,  wicked ncss,  folly,  and  hypocrisy.     You  harass  and 
injure  us  in  a  thousand  ways.     If  our  knowledge  increases, 
you  try  to  prevent  it,  thinking  that,  if  inquiry  is  encouraged, 
your  customers  will  decrease.     We  begin  to  see  through  your 
artifices.     Begone,  every   one  of  you,  and  don't  attempt  to 
deceive  us  any  more.' 


CHAPTER   VIII. 

Tutelary  and  Village  Deities. 

It  may  be  said  that  all  deities  ought  to  be  called  tutelary, 
and  no  doubt  the  idea  of  protecting  from  harm  is  essential  to 
the  later  idea  of  a  god.  But  among  rude,  uncultivated  races 
the  first  conception  of  a  god  is  never  that  of  a  protector  or 
saviour.  Primitive  man,  just  emerging  from  the  depths  of  a 
merely  animal  existence,  finds  himself  face  to  face  with 
mighty  mysterious  natural  forces.  He  sees,  feels,  and  dreads 
their  operation.  He  personifies  and  deifies  them,  and  gives 
them  names  expressive  of  the  awe  with  which  their  power  has 
impressed  him,  or  of  his  desire  to  propitiate  them.  It  is  a 
question  whether  any  of  the  primary  names  for  God  in  any 
country  are  significant  of  his  attributes  as  a  Guardian, 
Saviour,  and  Deliverer.  In  India  tutelary  functions  were 
no  doubt  ultimately  associated  with  both  Siva  and  Vishnu, 
but  in  the  case  of  Vishnu  they  were  delegated,  as  we  have 
seen,  to  his  incarnations  or  descents  on  earth,  and  in  the  case 
of  Siva  to  his  sons  Ganesa  and  Skanda  and  to  his  consort  the 
great  goddess  Devi,  regarded  as  the  mother  of  the  world  and 
worshipped  under  a  great  variety  of  different  names  in 
different  localities.  In  the  South  of  India  another  tutelary 
god  named  Ayenar,  the  reputed  son  of  Vishnu  and  Siva 
(see  p.  218),  is  very  popular  among  the  peasantry. 

Whether  the  worship  of  these  village  deities  (grama- 
devata)  is  a  mere  offshoot  or  ramification  of  the  religion 
of  Siva  and  Vishnu  is  very  doubtful.  It  is  much  more 
probable  that  the  village  gods  represent  far  earlier  and  more 

P 


2IO  Tutelary  and   Village  Deities. 

primitive  objects  of  worship.  Possibly  they  may  even  be 
developments  of  local  fetishes  once  held  in  veneration  by 
uncivilized  aboriginal  tribes  and  afterwards  grafted  into  the 
Hindu  system  by  the  Brahmans,  whose  wise  policy  it  has 
ever  been  to  appropriate  and  utilize  all  existing  cults,  cus- 
toms, and  superstitions.  It  is  certain  that  even  in  the  present 
day  scarcely  a  village,  and  indeed  scarcely  a  household  in 
India,  is  without  its  tutelary  divinity,  usually  represented  by 
some  rudely  carved  image  or  symbol,  located  in  homely 
shrines  or  over  doorways,  or,  it  may  be,  denoted  by  simple 
patches  of  red  paint  on  rocks  or  under  sacred  trees  or  in 
cross-ways,  and  always  taking  the  place  of  the  superior  gods 
in  the  religion  of  the  lower  orders. 

The  question  however  arises— In  what  sense  are  these 
homely  village  deities  tutelary?  From  whom  or  what  are 
they  believed  to  protect? 

A  Christian,  when  he  prays  for  deliverance  from  evil,  means 
not  only  deliverance  from  a  personal  evil  spirit,  but  from  the 
evil  of  sin  and  from  the  general  evil  existing  in  the  world 
around  him. 

A  Hindu,  on  the  other  hand,  has  no  idea  of  deliverance 
from  any  evil  except  that  inflicted  by  demons.  To  expect 
any  miraculous  deliverance  from  sin  or  the  effects  of  sin 
either  in  himself  or  other  men  would  be  to  him  simple 
foolishness.  He  is  too  firmly  convinced  that  the  conse- 
quences of  his  own  acts  cling  to  him  by  an  immutable  and 
inexorable  law,  the  operation  of  which  nothing  can  set  aside. 
The  plain  fact  undoubtedly  is  that  the  great  majority  of  the 
inhabitants  of  India  are,  from  the  cradle  to  the  burning- 
ground,  victims  of  a  form  of  mental  disease  which  is  best 
expressed  by  the  term  demonophobia.  They  are  haunted 
and  oppressed  by  a  perpetual  dread  of  demons.  They  are 
firmly  convinced  that  evil  spirits  of  all  kinds,  from  malignant 
fiends  to  merely  mischievous  imps  and  elves,  are  ever  on  the 
watch  to  harm,  harass  and  torment  them,  to  cause  plague, 


WorsJiip  of  Caiusa  and  Su-bralu)ianya.       2  i  1 

sickness,   famine   and    disaster,   to    impede,    injure  and   mar 
every  good  work. 

Hence  a  tutelary  god  among  the  Hindus  is  simply  one 
that  delivers  from  the  calamities,  actual  and  potential,  be- 
lieved to  be  due  to  demons. 


Worship  of  Gancsa  [G ana-pal i)  and  Su-braJnnanya. 

At  the  head  of  tutelary  village  deities  I  place  the  two 
sons  of  Siva: — i.  Ganesa — also  called  Gana-pati  (commonly 
Gan-pati, and  in  Southern  India  Puliyar,  'the  son');  2.  Skanda 
— often  called  Karttikeya,  and  still  more  commonly  Su-brah- 
manya.  But  in  so  placing  these  two  gods  I  must  explain 
that  my  investigations  in  India  have  led  me  to  take  a  view  of 
their  character  and  functions  somewhat  different  from  that 
hitherto  propounded  by  European  writers  on  Hindu  Mytho- 
logy. It  is  usual  for  such  writers  to  describe  Gancsa  as  the 
god  of  learning  and  patron  of  letters^;  whereas  the  whole 
province  of  speech,  language,  and  literature  is  really  placed 
under  the  presidency  of  the  goddess  Sarasvatl-.  The  only 
possible  ground  I  have  been  able  to  discover  for  connecting 
Gancsa  with  the  patronage  of  learning  is  the  circumstance 
that  every  Indian  book  opens  with  the  formula  Sri  Ganesaya 
namah. 

But  the  real  explanation  of  this  is  that  the  writing  of  a 
book  is  among  Hindus  a  very  serious  and  solemn  under- 
taking, peculiarly  liable  to  obstruction  from  spiteful  and 
jealous  spirits  of  evil,  and  the  favour  of  Ganesa  is  invoked 
to  counteract  their  malignity.  It  never  occurs  to  any  Hindu 
writer  to  suppose  for  a  moment  that  the  failure  of  his  literary 
efforts  is  ever  likely  to  be  due  to  his  own  incapacity.     In  this, 


'  I  find  that  even  M.  Barth,  in  his  recent  excellent  work  on  the  reli- 
gions of  India,  falls  into  this  mistake. 

"^  Thus  we  find  the  first  verse  of  the  Mahabharata  addresses  homage 
to  Sarasvatl,  not  to  Ganesa. 

P  % 


212        Worship  of  Ganesa  and  Su-brahnanya. 

as  in  all  other  enterprises,  want  of  success  is  attributed  not 
to  want  of  skill,  energy,  or  persistency,  but  to  negligence 
in  taking  proper  precautions  against  demoniacal  jealousy  and 
obstruction. 

•So  far  indeed  is  Ganesa  from  being  the  god  of  learning,  he 
is  peculiarly  the  god  of  the  lower  orders  and  uneducated 
classes.  Hence  in  a  verse  said  to  be  extracted  fnom  the  old 
version  of  Manu  he  is  called  the  god  of  the  Sudras^. 

Aeain,  it  is  usual  to  describe  Skanda  as  the  god  of  war,  as 
if  he  were  a  kind  of  Hindu  Mars,  whereas  his  martial  quali- 
ties are  only  displayed  in  leading  the  armies  of  the  gods 
against  the  countless  host  of  their  enemies  the  evil  demons. 

With  a  view  then  to  a  fuller  explanation  of  the  history  and 
character  of  two  gods  so  generally  honoured  and  propitiated 
throughout  India,  I  may  begin  by  pointing  out  that  the  cultus 
of  both  Ganesa  and  Su-brahmanya  is  a  mere  offshoot  of 
Saivism.  The  very  name  Ganesa  (Gana-Isa)  or  Gana-pati, 
meaning  'lord  of  hosts,'  belonged  originally  to  Siva  (see 
p.  77),  for  Siva  is,  as  we  have  seen,  surrounded  by  countless 
troops  or  hosts  (gana)  of  servants  and  officers,  who  are  con- 
stantly in  readiness  to  traverse  earth  and  air  for  the  execu- 
tion of  his  orders. 

And  just  as  Siva  is  ever  engaged  in  two  opposite  duties — 
on  the  one  hand,  as  Rudra  and  Kala,  directing  and  control- 
ling dissolution  and  death,  on  the  other  hand,  as  Siva  and 
Sambhu,  presiding  over  re-intcgration  and  new  life — so  by  a 
figment  of  mythology,  those  of  his  emissaries  who  are  charged 
with  carrying  out  the  former  operation  arc  converted  into  evil 
demons,  imps,  and  devils,  while  those  who  are  agents  in  the 
latter  are  held  to  be  good  angels,  ministering  spirits,  and 
beneficent  genii. 

And  hence  it  is  that  two  entirely  opposite  classes  of  de- 
moniacal beings  are  believed  to  be  continually  roaming  about 

'  The  verse  is — Vipranam  daivatarn  Sambhuli  Kshatriyanam  tu  Madha- 
vah  Vaisyanam  tu  bhaved  Brahma  Sudranam  Gana-nayakah. 


Worship  of  Ganc'sa  and  Sii-brahvuinya.       2  1 


J 


earth,  air  and  sky — the  one  ill-disposed  towards  all  forms  of 
life,  human  and  divine,  the  other  well-disposed ;  the  one 
destroyers,  the  other  protectors ;  the  one  instruments  of 
calamity  and  disaster,  the  other  agents  of  good-fortune  and 
prosperity. 

It  is  to  be  observed,  too,  that  differences  of  rank,  character, 
and  functibn  are  supposed  to  separate  both  good  and  bad 
spirits^  into  various  subdivisions.  For  example,  the  highest 
order  of  evil  demons,  who  may  be  called  arch-fiends,  disdain 
any  lower  aim  than  the  humiliation  and  subjugation  of  the 
gods,  and  to  effect  this  they  will  sometimes  undergo  long 
courses  of  austerity  and  self-mortification  in  the  hope  of 
making  themselves  omnipotent.  The  next  in  order  vent 
their  rancour  and  hostility  upon  human  beings.  Of  these, 
again,  some  destroy  life,  some  inflict  diseases,  some  disturb 
religious  rites,  and  some  are  mere  demons  of  mischief  and 
obstruction  who  delight  in  hindering  good  works  or  frighten- 
ing women  and  children,  like  the  ghosts,  hobgoblins,  elves, 
and  bogies  of  nursery  talc  and  fable. 

Similar  differences  are  supposed  to  divide  good  demons 
into  various  orders  and  degrees  of  rank  and  power. 

It  is  over  these  countless  hosts  of  good  and  evil  demons 
that  the  god  Siva  exercises  sovereignty.  They  are  all 
primarily  subject  to  his  authority;  but  the  actual  command 
over  them  is  delegated  to  his  two  sons,  Ganesa  and  Skanda. 

As  for  Skanda,  although  the  younger  and  less  generally 
worshipped,  he  holds  the  more  ambitious  office.  He  is 
called  the  god  of  war,  because  he  is  commander-in-chief  or 
generalissimo  (Sena-pati)  of  the  good  demon  armies.  These 
he  leads  against  the  hosts  of  their  enemies  the  evil  demons, 
notably  against  those  rebellious  and  arrogant  arch-fiends 
who  seek  to  overcome  and  enslave  the  gods.  He  is  often 
called  Karttikeya,  from  his  foster-mothers,  the  six  Krittikas 

^  The  use  of  the  term  'spirit '  for  demon  is  not  intended  to  imply  that 
demons  are  incorporeal  spiritual  beings. 


214       Worship  of  Gancsa  and  Su-brahmanya. 

or  Pleiades,  and  then  has  six  heads  ^  and  twelve  arms.  These 
arc  to  enable  him  to  hold  weapons  of  different  kinds  sym- 
bolical of  martial  skill  and  prowess. 

But  he  is  not  seldom  represented  in  other  characters.     For 
example,  in  some   places   he  appears  as  simply  a  beautiful 
youth  (Kumara)  riding   on  a  peacock,  divested  of  all  mar- 
tial attributes.    Again,  in  the  South  of  India,  where  his  cultus 
prevails  most  extensively,  he  is  not  worshipped  as  presiding 
over  war,    but   under   the   name   Su-brahmanya,   'very   de- 
votional '  (or  '  very  favourable  to  Brahmans  ').    I  found  in  fact 
that  his   temples  are  either  frequented  by  those  who  seek 
through  his  intervention  to  be  delivered  from  evil  spirits,  or  else 
by  women  who  hope  by  propitiating  him  to  obtain  handsome 
sons'''.     He  is  himself  married,  and  has  two  wives  popularly 
called  Devayani  and  Valll-amman.     These,   like    their  hus- 
band, are  believed  to  grant  children,  to  prevent  the  attacks 
and  thwart  the  malice  of  devils,  and  when  evil  spirits  have 
actually  taken  possession  of  any  one,  to  be  capable  of  casting 
them  out.     At   Tanjore   and    other  places  in  the  South  of 
India  I   found  the  temples  of  Skanda   in   his   character  of 
Su-brahmanya  side  by  side  with  those  of  his  brother  Ganesa, 
and  in  some  districts  of  the  extreme  South  Su-brahmanya  is 
the  more  popular  deity  of  the  two. 

As  to  Ganesa,  it  is  certain  that  he  has  no  pretensions 
whatever  to  be  regarded  as  a  martial  deity.  On  the  con- 
trary, he  is  essentially  a  homely  village-god.  Fighting  and 
activity  of  any  kind  are  repugnant  to  his  nature,  which, 
however,  appears  to  be  somewhat  contradictory  and  full  of 
curious  enigmas.  His  form  resembles  that  of  a  bloated, 
well-fed  Brahman  seated  at  his  ease  with  legs  folded  under 
him  on  a  lotus-throne,  the  very  beau-ideal  of  satiated  appetite 
and    indolent   self-complacency,   but   with    the   head    of    an 


'  The  six  heads  were  to  enable  him  to  be  nursed  by  his  six  nurses. 
"^  A  celebrated   and  much-frequented  temple  dedicated  to  him  is  on 
the  Pulney  hills. 


Worship  of  Gancsa  and  Su-braJimanya.        215 

elephant  to  denote  shrewdness  or  wisdom,  and  witli  four 
arms,  holding  an  elephant-hook,  a  noose,  a  maccS  and  a 
cake,  one  in  each  of  his  hands.  Not  unfrequently  he  is 
represented  riding  on  a  rat,  and  is  always  associated  with 
images  of  that  animal,  probably  as  emblematical  of  sagacity. 
In  Southern  India  I  occasionally  found  his  idols  in  company 
with  those  of  Nagas  or  snakes.  Sometimes  he  has  a  garland 
round  his  neck,  sometimes  the  sacred  Brahmanical  cord. 
Unlike  Su-brahmanya  or  Skanda,  he  is  not  generally  repre- 
sented as  married  ;  though  according  to  some  he  has  two 
wives  called  Riddhi  and  Siddhi-,  '  Prosperity'  and  '  Success.' 

Contrasting  Ganesa  then  with  Su-brahmanya,  wc  must 
always  bear  in  mind  that  Ganesa  is  not  the  commander 
and  leader,  but  rather  the  king  and  lord  of  the  demon-host, 
ruling  over  both  good  and  bad  alike,  and  controlling  those 
malignant  spirits  who  are  ever  plotting  evil  and  causing 
hindrances  and  difficulties.  But  he  controls  them,  not  as 
Skanda  does,  by  the  exercise  of  bravery  and  physical  energy, 
but  by  artifice  and  stratagem,  very  much  after  the  manner  of 
some  indolent,  wily  Brahman  who,  skilled  in  the  Mantras,  sits 
comfortably  at  home  and  by  the  simple  repetition  of  a  few 
texts,  spells  and  cabalistic  words,  compels  good  and  evil 
spirits  to  obey  his  behests. 

Nor  is  it  out  of  harmony  with  this  theory  of  the  true 
character  of  the  god  that  the  Ganesa  of  modern  mythology 
is  thought  by  some  Pandits  to  be  a  development  of  the 
Vedic  Brahmanas-pati  or  Brihaspati,  '  lord  of  prayer ' — once 
the  personification  of  religion  and  devotion — who  by  the 
simple  force  of  his  supplications  protects  the  pious  from 
the    machinations    of  the    impious.     It    is    certain    that    the 


'  Instead  of  a  mace  he  has  sometimes  a  lotus,  and  sometimes  a  frag- 
ment of  one  of  his  own  tusks  which  he  once  broke  off  in  a  tit  of  uncon- 
trollable passion. 

'^  Others  make  his  two  wives  Buddhi  and  Siddhi,  '  Intelligence '  and 
'Success.' 


2i6       Worship  of  Gane'sa  and  Su~5rakmanya. 

modern  popular  Ganesa  has  no  place  in  the  Veda,  the  epi- 
thet Gananarn  Gana-patih,  which  occurs  in  Rig-veda  II. 
23.  I,  having  reference  to  Brahmanas-pati  as  lord  of  the 
Ganas  or  troops  of  divinities^. 

What  the  Ganesa  or  Gana-pati  of  the  present  day  really 
represents  is  a  complex  personification  of  sagacity,  shrewd- 
ness, patience,  and  self-reliance— of  all  those  qualities,  in  short, 
which  overcome  hindrances  and  difficulties,  whether  in  per- 
forming religious  acts,  writing  books,  building  houses,  making 
journeys,  or  undertaking  anything.  He  is  before  all  things 
the  typical  embodiment  of  success  in  life ;  with  its  usual 
accompaniments  of  good-living,  plenteousness,  prosperity,  and 
peace.  This  is  the  true  secret  of  his  popularity.  This  is  why 
his  images  and  shrines  smeared  with  red  paint  are  seen  every- 
where throughout  India.  In  all  ceremonies,  except  funeral 
rites,  and  in  all  undertakings  Ganesa  is  first  invoked. 

It  should  be  noted,  however,  that  although  his  principal 
office  is  to  remove  impediments,  especially  from  religious 
rites,  he  may  also  permit  them  ;  and  this  in  fact  is  implied 
in  his  names  Vighnesa  and  Vighna-raja,  '  lord  of  obstacles.' 
So  also,  although  he  is  essentially  a  god  who  presides  over 
domestic  happiness  a,nd  rural  prosperity,  driving  away  evil 
demons  from  houses,  fields,  crops,  and  herds,  he  may  also,  if 
not  propitiated,  allow  malicious  imps  to  haunt  houses,  infest 
roads,  mar  harvests,  and  cause  a  murrain  among  cattle. 

When  I  was  nearly  dashed  to  pieces  by  restive  horses,  one 
of  which  broke  away  from  my  carriage  and  was  precipitated 
over  a  precipice  on  the  Ghat  between  Poona  and  Mahaba- 
lesvar,  I  was  told  by  a  wise-looking  native  who  witnessed  the 
accident  that  the  road  in  that  district  was  infested  by  demons 
who  often  caused  accidents,  and  that  if  I  had  taken  care  to 
propitiate  Ganesa  before  starting  I  should  have  escaped  all 
molestation  and  all  risk  of  being  upset. 

*  The  same  expression  Gananarn  Gana-patih  occurs  also  in  the  Vaja- 
saneyi-Satnhita  of  the  Yajur-veda,  XXIII.  19. 


Worship  of  Gancsa  and  Su-bi  ahnianya.       2  i  7 

Altogether,  the  god  Ganesa  represents  a  being  who  is  a 
curious  mixture  of  divine  and  demoniacal,  benevolent  and 
malevolent,  intellectual  and  animal  propensities,  all  of  which 
are  typified  by  the  somewhat  grotesque  and  bizarre  assem- 
blage of  symbols  noticeable  in  his  image. 

Notably,  too,  his  worship  is  combined  with  that  of  every 
other  god.  For  all  sects  unite  in  claiming  him  as  their  own. 
It  is  on  this  account  that  his  shrines  and  images  are  generally 
found  in  association  with  those  of  other  deities,  and  are 
usually  to  be  seen  in  the  approaches  or  vestibules  of  large 
temples.  Often,  however,  they  stand  alone,  and  are  then  to 
be  found  outside  villages,  under  trees,  or  in  cross-ways,  or 
indeed  in  any  kind  of  locality,  but  always  smeared  with  red 
paint  in  token  of  good-luck  and  auspiciousness.  Solitary 
temples  of  large  size  dedicated  to  Gancsa  are  rare.  The 
largest  I  saw  anywhere  in  India  was  at  Wa-i,  between  Poona 
and  Mahiibalcsvar.  It  contained  a  colossal  image  of  the  god, 
and  in  this  temple  I  noticed  a  singularly  simple  and  easy 
method  of  doing  him  honour.  A  man  entered  with  a  small 
vessel  of  holy  water  from  the  neighbouring  river.  He  re- 
peated no  prayers,  but  with  a  diminutive  spoon  poured  a  little 
of  the  water  two  or  three  times  on  the  lower  extremities  of 
the  huge  image  and  then  retired.  Another  large  Ganesa 
temple  which  I  visited  is  on  the  summit  of  the  rock  of 
Trichinopoly,  Ganesa  being  there  called  Ujjhi  Puliyar^. 

In  point  of  fact  Ganesa  has  in  the  present  day  few  ex- 
clusive adorers ;  that  is  to  say,  there  are  few  sectarians  who 
trust  to  him  alone  for  salvation,  though  all  propitiate  him 
for  success.  In  former  times  the  Ganesa  or  Ganapatya  sect, 
as  it  was  called  (see  p.  59),  was  divided  into  six  sub-sects  who 
worshipped  six  different  forms  of  the  god,  named  respectively 
(according  to  the  Sahkara-vijaya)  Maha-Ganapati,  Haridra- 


*  There  is  also  a  shrine  to  Su-brahmanya  on  this  celebrated  rock,  and 
I  noticed  as  a  peculiarity  that  the  image  of  a  peacock  was  represented 
looking  into  Ganesa's  shrine,  not  into  that  of  his  brother. 


2 1 8  Worship  of  Ay  mar. 

Ganapati,  Ucchishta-Ganapati  (also  called  Heramba),  Nava- 
nlta-Ganapati,  Svarna-Ganapati,  and  Santana-Ganapati  ^. 


Worship  of  Ayenar. 

Closely  allied  to  the  worship  of  Ganesa  and  Skanda  (Su- 
brahmanya),  and  generally  to  Saivism,  is  the  worship  of 
Ayenar;  a  village-god  very  popular  in  the  extreme  Sjuth 
of  India,  but  little  known  in  other  parts.  One  distinction, 
however,  may  be  noticed  between  the  worship  of  Ayenar 
and  that  of  Siva's  two  sons.  He  is  never  asked  for  any 
positive  good.  He  only  protects  from  harm,  and  his  wor- 
ship consists  solely  in  propitiation.  His  name  Ayenar  is 
said  to  be  a  corruption  of  Hari-hara  (  =  Vishnu  and  Siva, 
see  p.  65),  and  he  is  believed  to  be  the  son  of  both  these 
deities ;  that  is,  he  is  the  product  of  the  marriage  of  Siva 
and  Vishnu  when  the  latter  took  the  form  of  a  beautiful 
woman.  He  is  popularly  called  Ayenar-appan  -,  and  some- 
times has  another  name,  Sasta,  '  the  ruler  or  governor.' 

Like  Ganesa  and  Skanda,  the  popular  deity  Ayenar  is  a 
lord  and  leader  of  the  demon-host,  and  his  province  is  to 
guard  the  fields,  crops,  and  herds  of  the  peasantry,  and  drive 
away  their  enemies  the  devils  and  fiends,  who  are  ever  on  the 
watch  to  inflict  disease,  blight,  and  other  calamities.  Accord- 
ingly, outside  every  village  in  Southern  India,  and  generally 
among  a  group  of  trees  to  the  west  of  the  village,  may  be 
seen  the  shrines  of  Ayenar,  surrounded  with  rude  clay  or 

'  Dhundhi-raja,  said  to  mean  'king  of  Siva's  hosts,'  is  another  popular 
form  of  Ganesa  at  Benares.  I  noticed  numerous  worshippers  at  his 
shrine,  as  well  as  at  that  of  another  shrine  of  the  same  god  in  his 
character  of  Sakshin  or  witness.  In  this  latter  character  he  is  usually 
called  Sakshi-Vinayaka  (vulgarly  Sakhi-Vinayaka).  Every  pilgrim  who 
has  been  the  round  of  the  shrines  in  the  PaiicakosT  of  Benares  must 
finish  up  by  a  visit  to  Ganesa,  'the  witness,'  who  then  bears  testimony  to 
the  completeness  of  the  difficult  task  he  has  accomplished. 

^  Appan  is  the  Tamil  for  '  father,'  as  Amman  is  for  '  mother.' 


WorsJiip  of  Aycnar.  219 

terra-cotta  figures  of  horses  and  other  animals — often  of  life- 
size — on  which  he  is  supposed  to  ride  when  keeping  guard. 
His  image  is  that  of  a  human  form  painted  a  reddish  colour 
and  very  roughly  carved,  sometimes  in  a  sitting  posture, 
sometimes  on  horseback.  When  properly  represented,  he 
ought  to  have  a  crown  on  his  head,  the  Saiva  mark  on  his 
forehead,  a  sceptre  in  his  hand,  and  ornaments  on  his  person. 
Often  images  of  Ganesa  are  placed  near  him.  He  has  two 
wives  (known  b}'  the  names  Puranl  and  Pudkala),  who 
generally  sit  on  each  side  of  him^  and  take  an  active  part 
in  driving  away  demons,  especially  at  night,  when  like  their 
husband  they  ride  about  the  fields  on  horses.  It  is  on  this 
account  that  no  villager  in  Southern  India  likes  to  be  out  in 
the  fields  at  night,  and  on  no  account  will  any  one  pass  near 
the  shrines  of  Ayenar  and  his  wives  after  dark.  If  any 
venturesome  person  happens  to  cross  their  path  when  they 
are  careering  about  the  fields,  he  is  liable  to  be  taken  for  an 
evil  .spirit  and  slain. 

After  recovery  from  sickness,  or  to  commemorate  any  piece 
of  good-fortune,  the  villagers  place  fresh  clay  horses  round 
the  shrine  of  Ayenar,  as  thank-offerings  or  in  fulfilment  of 
vows.  He  is  also  at  such  times  propitiated  by  offerings  of  the 
blood  of  swine,  goats,  sheep,  cocks  and  other  animals,  or  by 
cooked  food  and  libations  of  strong  liquor. 

If  cholera  or  pestilence  of  any  kind  breaks  out,  the  villagers 
redouble  their  offerings  to  the  priests  of  the  shrine,  who  are 
generally  very  poor  and  of  the  lowest  caste,  and  are  very  glad 
to  receive  any  money  or  consume  any  eatables  that  may  be 
offered  to  the  god. 

I  examined  with  great  interest  many  shrines  of  Ayenar  in 
Southern  India,  and  particularly  one  at  Permagudy,  on  my 
way  from  Madura  to  Ramesvaram.  It  was  situated  close  to 
a  grove  of  small  trees  not  far  from  the  village.  Under  a 
rough  stone  canopy  was  a  rudely  carved  stone  male  idol. 
The  wives  of  the  god  were  not  represented,  but  about  twenty- 


220 


Worship  of  Hanuman. 


five  toy-like  terra-cotta  horses,  some  as  large  as  life,  were 
ranged  on  each  side  of  the  shrine.  Several  of  these  fictile 
animals  had  grotesque  images  upon  them  representing  riders, 
and  some  of  them  were  so  badly  formed  that  it  was  difficult 
to  say  whether  they  were  intended  for  lions  or  horses.  In 
the  front  of  the  shrine  was  a  rude  stone  altar  for  sacrifices 
and  oblations,  but  I  saw  no  signs  of  any  recent  off"erings,  nor 
was  a  single  worshipper  of  the  god  to  be  seen  anywhere.  I 
noticed  indeed  that  all  the  shrines  of  Ayenar  had  a  deserted 
appearance,  the  fact  being  that  he  is  never  worshipped  in  our 
sense  of  the  word.  He  is  only  propitiated  in  emergencies. 
Every  year  after  harvest-time  a  festival  is  kept  in  his  honour, 
when  numerous  animals  are  sacrificed,  and  images  of  the  god 
are  decorated  with  ornaments  and  drawn  about  through  the 
village  streets  on  the  rude  clay  horses  I  have  described. 

Worship  of  Hamimaii. 

In  connexion  with  the  subject  of  local  tutelary  deities  it 
ought  to  be  mentioned  that  a  very  common  village-god  in  the 
Dekhan,  Central  and  Upper  India,  is  Hanuman  (nom.  case 
of  Hanumat,  a  name  meaning  '  possessing  large  jaws').     Ths 
god  derives  his  popularity  from  the  part  he  took  in  assisting 
Rama   to  recover  his  wife   Slta  after  she  had  been  carried 
away  to  Ceylon  by  the  demon  Ravana.     He  is  one  of  the 
chiefs  of  a  host  of  semi-divine  monkey-like  beings  who,  ac- 
cording to  the  Ramayana  (I.   16),  were  created  to  become 
Ramacandra's  allies.     In  point  of  fact,   there   can  be   little 
doubt  that  Hanuman   was   originally  a   mere  poetical   deifi- 
cation  of  some   well-known   leader   of  the   wild    aboriginal 
tribes,  whose  appearance  resembled  that  of  apes,   and  who 
really  rendered  effective  assistance  to  Rama  in  his  battles  with 
Ravana.     There  were  several   of  these  powerful  aboriginal 
chiefs,  who,  from  their  accomplishing  apparently  supernatural 
feats  of  strength,  were  held  to  be  the   progeny  of  various 


Worship  of  Haminian.  221 

gods.  Thus  the  Simian  king  Sugnva  was  said  to  be  a  son  of 
the  Sun,  and  another  chief  named  BaH  was  a  son  of  Indra, 

Hanuman,  on  the  other  hand,  was  believed  to  be  a  son  of 
the  wind  (Pavana  or  Maruta).  He  could  assume  any  form  at 
will,  wield  rocks,  remove  mountains,  dart  through  the  air, 
seize  clouds,  and  rival  Vishnu's  divine  bird  Garuda  in  swift- 
ness of  flight.  His  devotion  to  Rama's  service  was  so  great 
that  he  is  worshipped  over  a  great  part  of  India  as  the  type 
and  model  of  a  faithful  devoted  servant.  Many  believe  that 
when  propitiated  he  can  confer  supernatural  muscular  strength 
and  bodily  power.  His  images,  which,  to  denote  the  reverence 
in  which  they  are  held,  are  always  smeared  with  vermilion 
(sindura)  and  oil,  are  generally  rudely  formed,  and  often  I 
noticed  that  they  were  most  common  in  the  Dckhan,  where 
they  are  generally  found  outside  villages.  Not  that  there  is 
any  lack  of  them  in  large  towns.  In  the  centre  of  Poona, 
I  came  across  a  shrine  containing  a  shapeless  idol,  which  was 
said  to  be  an  image  of  Hanuman  several  hundred  years  old. 
It  was  set  up  under  a  Banian  tree.  A  man  was  in  the  act  of 
painting  it  with  bright  red  paint  as  I  passed,  and  another 
man  was  prostrating  himself  at  full  length  on  the  ground 
before  it. 

Again,  I  visited  a  large  temple  dedicated  to  Hanuman  out- 
side the  town  of  Kaira.  It  is  said  to  be  well  endowed. 
Offerings  of  oil  are  constantly  presented  to  Hanuman,  and 
eighty  Maunds  of  oil  had  recently  been  offered  to  this  idol. 
Within  the  enclosure  of  his  temple  were  shrines  to  Rama 
and  Krishna,  both  of  which  occupied  subordinate  positions. 
Of  course  the  worship  of  Hanuman  is  usually  connected 
with  that  of  Vishnu,  but  here  in  this  enclosure  was  also  a 
I.ihga  shrine  ^  and  another  of  the  goddess  of  small-pox, 
and  all  around  w^as  a  cloister  which  served  as  a  Dharma- 
sala,  or  lodging  for  travellers. 

^  According  to  some  legends,  Hanuman  was  a  son  of  Siva. 


222 


Motho-worship. 


The  veneration  in  which  apes  and  monkeys  of  every  kind 
are  held  throughout  India  cannot  fail  to  strike  a  stranger  as 
remarkable.  This  is  doubtless  intensified  by  the  homage  paid 
to  Hanuman.  It  is  certainly  connected  with  that  homage. 
All  monkeys  are  believed  to  be  his  near  relations,  though 
they  were  probably  objects  of  worship  long  before  his  time^ 
Yet  they  are  quite  as  ungodlike  in  their  habits  in  the  regions 
where  they  are  worshipped  as  the  most  mischievous  monkeys 
in  any  other  part  of  the  world.  Often  a  troop  will  make  its 
appearance  in  a  village,  tear  off  the  roof  of  a  native  house,  or 
do  even  worse  damage  out  of  sheer  wantonness.  Yet  no 
householder  would  ever  dream  of  reprisals.  The  sacred 
character  of  the  monkey  shields  him  from  all  harm. 


Mother-ivorship. 

Undoubtedly  the  most  popular  tutelary  deities  of  India  are 
the  divine  Matris  or  Mothers.  The  propitiation  of  Ayenar 
and  his  wives  is  confined  to  the  South,  but  mother-worship  is 
extended  everywhere  throughout  India.  In  the  first  place, 
every  living  mother  is  venerated  as  a  kind  of  deity  by  her 
children.  Then  every  village  has  its  own  special  guardian 
mother,  called  Mata  or  Amba.  Generally  there  is  also  a 
male  deity,  who  protects  like  the  female  from  all  adverse  and 
demoniacal  influences.  But  the  mother  is  the  favourite  object 
of  adoration ;  and  no  wonder ;  for,  as  we  have  seen  in  the 
preceding  chapter,  activity,  power,  and  force  (sakti)  are  sup- 
posed to  be  her  peculiar  attributes.  Perhaps  however  the  real 
reason  for  her  attracting  more  homage  than  the  god  is  that 
she  is  held  to  have  a  thoroughly  feminine  nature.  She  is 
more  easily  propitiated  by  prayer,  flattery,  and  offerings,  more 

^  It  seems  not  unlikely  that  the  Vrishakapi  of  Rig-veda  X.  86  may 
point  to  a  very  early  veneration  of  apes,  arising,  perhaps,  from  their 
mysterious  resemblance  to  men. 


JMothcr-worship.  223 

ready  to  defend  from  evil,  more  irritable,  uncertain,  and  way- 
ward in  her  temper  and  moods,  more  dangerously  spiteful, 
and  prone  to  inflict  diseases,  if  offended  by  neglect. 

In  point  of  fact,  the  worship  of  the  divine  Matris  is,  as 
already  pointed  out,  a  mere  branch  of  Saivism,  and  par- 
ticularly of  that  form  of  Saivism  called  Saktism  (see 
p.  181).  Indeed,  one  of  the  most  remarkable  features  of 
the  multiform  and  many-sided  Hindu  religion  is  the  efficacy 
supposed  to  belong  to  this  form  of  worship.  Probably  the 
idea  of  Mother-worship  had  its  origin  in  the  patriarchal  con- 
stitution of  ancient  Aryan  society.  Among  the  early  Aryans 
the  paternal  and  maternal  tie,  and,  indeed,  the  whole  family 
bond,  was  intensely  strong.  If  the  father  was  regarded  with 
awe  as  the  primary  source  of  life,  the  mother  was  an  object 
of  devotion  to  the  children  of  the  family  as  the  more  evident 
author  of  their  existence.  And  again,  if  the  father  was  vene- 
rated as  the  food-supplier  and  protector  (pita),  the  mother 
was  beloved  as  the  meter  out  (mata)  of  daily  nourishment — thq 
arranger  of  the  household,  measuring  and  ordering  its  affairs 
as  the  moon  (also  called  mata)  measured  the  time.  To  the 
Aryan  family  the  father  and  mother  were  present  gods. 

Can  we  wonder  that  with  the  growth  of  devotional  ideas 
and  the  increasing  sense  of  a  higher  superintending  pro- 
vidence the  earliest  religious  creed  was  constructed  on  what 
may  be  called  paternal  and  maternal  lines?  At  first  the  sky 
(Dyaus,  Zeus),  bending  over  all,  was  personified  as  a  Heavenly 
F'athcr  (Dyaus-pitar,  Jupiter),  and  the  Earth  as  the  Mother 
of  all  creatures.  Then,  in  place  of  the  Earth,  Infinite  Space 
(A-diti)  was  thought  of  as  an  eternal  Mother.  Then  Prakriti 
was  the  germinal  productive  principle — the  eternal  Mother 
capable  of  evolving  all  created  things  out  of  herself,  but  never 
so  creating  unless  united  witli  the  eternal  spiritual  principle 
called  the  eternal  Male  (Purusha). 

To  the  prevalence  of  such  ideas  must,  I  think,  be  attri- 
buted the  fact  that  everywhere  throughout  India  arc  scattered 


224 


Mother-worship. 


shrines  which  on  inspection  are  found  to  contain  no  images  or 
idols  shaped  Hke  human  beings,  but  simply  stone  symbols  of 
a  double  form,  intended  to  typify  the  blending  of  the  male 
and  female  principles  in  creation.  The  casual  tourist,  whose 
notions  of  propriety  are  cast  in  a  European  mould,  is  shocked 
by  what  he  considers  an  evidence  of  the  utter  degradation  of 
Indian  thought.  He  turns  away  in  disgust,  and  denounces 
the  Hindu  religion  as  simple  abomination. 

My  own  researches  into  Indian  religious  thought  have  led 
me  to  view  in  these  symbols  a  proof  of  the  hold  which  the 
ancient  dualistic  philosophy  has  on  the  Hindu  mind.     It  is 
common  to  say  that  Brahmanism  is  Pantheism,  and  no  doubt 
it  is,  broadly  speaking,  true  that  Brahmanism  is  a  kind  of 
Pantheism  ;  but  to  apply  the  term  Pantheism  to  the  religion 
of  the  Hindus  generally^  is  a  great  mistake,  and  altogether 
misleading.     A  small  minority  of  strict  Brahmans  are  Pan- 
theists   according    to    the   peculiar  Vedantic    doctrine    (see 
p.  36),  while  a  large  majority  of  the  Hindus  are  believers  in 
one  personal  God — that  is  to  say,  in  either  Siva  or  Vishnu  or 
their  manifestations — and  are  therefore  Theists.     Yet  it  is 
true  that  their  Theism  is  no  stern  belief  in  the  unity  of  God. 
It  constantly  tends  to  pantheistic  or  polytheistic  superstitions, 
and  especially  to  the  mystical  theory  of  a  duality  in  unity 
before  explained  (see  p.  181).     Such  a  theory  rests,  as  we 
have  seen,  on  the  philosophical  doctrine  of  two  distinct  eter- 
nally existing  essences — Spirit  regarded  as  a  male  principle, 
and  Matter  or  the  germ  of  the  external  world  regarded  as  a 
female.    Without  the  union  of  the  two  no  creation  takes  place. 
To  any  one  imbued  with  these  dualistic  conceptions  the  Linga 
and  the  Yoni  are  suggestive  of  no  improper  ideas.     They  are 
cither  types  of  the  two  mysterious  creative  forces — the  efficient 
and  material  causes  of  the  universe — or  symbols  of  one  divine 
power  delegating  procreative  energy  to  male  and  female  organ- 
isms.  They  are  mystical  representatives,  and  perhaps  the  best 

*  As  I  heard  it  so  applied  not  long  ago  by  an  Indian  bishop. 


Mother-'worship.  225 

possible  impersonal  representatives,  of  the  abstract  expres- 
sions paternity  and  maternity. 

Of  course,  such  ideas  are  too  mystical  for  the  masses  of  the 
people.  Yet  the  ordinary  Hindu  finds  no  difficulty  in  ac- 
cepting the  theory  of  a  universe  proceeding  from  a  divine 
father  and  mother.  Hence,  as  wc  have  already  seen,  some 
images  of  Siva  (called  Ardha-narisa)  represent  him  as  female 
on  one  side  of  his  body  and  male  on  the  other,  to  indicate 
that  he  combines  in  his  own  person  maternal  as  well  as 
paternal  qualities  and  attributes,  and  that  all  the  mothers  of 
India  are  simply  manifestations  of  portions  of  his  essence.  I 
need  not  repeat  here  that  the  god's  energy  is  supposed  to  be 
located  more  especially  in  the  female  half  of  his  nature,  and 
that  the  divine  mothers  are  variously  classified  according  to 
various  degrees  of  participation  in  that  energy,  the  highest 
being  identified  with  different  forms  of  his  supposed  consort, 
the  lowest  including  human  mothers  downwards,  who  are  all 
worshipped  as  incarnations  of  the  one  divine  productive 
capacity  of  nature. 

There  are  about  one  hundred  and  forty  distinct  Mothers 
in  Gujarat,  besides  numerous  varieties  of  some  of  the  more 
popular  forms.  In  all  likelihood  every  one  of  these,  though 
declared  by  the  Brahmans  to  be  separate  forms  of  Siva's 
consort  Kali,  is  really  the  representative  of  some  local 
deity  (Grama-devata),  worshipped  by  the  inhabitants  from 
time  immemorial.  Some  are  represented  by  rudely  carved 
images,  others  by  simple  symbols,  and  others  are  remarkable 
for  preferring  empty  shrines  and  the  absence  of  all  visible 
representation. 

The  first  genuine  country  village  I  visited  on  reaching 
Bombay  in  1875  was  in  Gujarat.  It  had  as  usual  two 
shrines,  one  to  Siva  and  his  son  Ganesa,  the  other  to  the 
local  Mata  or  Mother,  believed  to  be  a  manifestation  of 
Siva's  wife  and  called  Khodiyar,  or  '  Mischief.'  The  attitude 
of  mind  and  usual  disposition  of  this  Mother  towards  the 

Q 


2  26  Mother-worship. 

villagers  appears  to  be  anything  but  maternal.  Her  shrine 
when  I  visited  it  was  of  a  very  rough  and  ready  character, 
little  better  than  a  mere  mud  shed,  open  to  all  the  winds  of 
heaven  and  accessible  to  all  comers — even  to  unbelievers  like 
myself,  quite  as  much  as  to  her  faithful  votaries.  Her  image 
too  was  by  no  means  attractive  in  its  contour  and  accom- 
paniments. It  was  carved  in  the  rudest  manner,  and  might 
have  done  duty  for  an  African  fetish.  I  noticed  that  in  some 
villages  the  Mother  is  represented  by  a  simple  unworked 
stone,  but  always  recumbent,  never  erect,  and  occasionally  a 
wall  or  some  markings  on  it  are  believed  to  symbolize  the 
presence  of  the  goddess.  It  is  a  mistake  to  suppose  that 
every  Hindu  temple  or  shrine  has  an  idol.  I  passed  a  shrine 
near  Allahabad  dedicated  to  a  local  Mother  euphemistically 
called  Alopi  or  'Non-destroyer,'  who  here  takes  the  place 
of  the  goddess  worshipped  in  the  South  under  the  name  of 
Marl-amman,  the  'Destroying  Mother,'  or  goddess  of  small- 
pox (see  p.  228).  There  was  no  image  in  Alopi's  shrine,  only 
a  flat  stone  slab,  on  which,  in  consequence  of  a  late  outbreak 
of  small-pox,  an  immense  number  of  offerings  of  flowers, 
cocoa-nuts,  and  grain  were  being  laid  by  a  succession  of 
worshippers,  both  Hindu  and  Muhammadan. 

On  the  other  hand,  when  I  visited  the  village  over  which 
Khocliyar  presides,  I  found  no  offerings  near  her  image ;  or  if 
any  had  been  placed  there  before  my  arrival  they  had  dis- 
appeared. Most  probably  the  few  that  had  been  offered  had 
been  already  appropriated  by  the  village  priest,  who  was 
nowhere  to  be  seen.  The  name  Khodiyar,  '  Mischief,'  is 
very  significant  of  this  particular  Mother's  character,  for 
although  her  function  is  to  shield  from  harm,  she  is  more 
inclined  to  turn  mischievous  and  cause  harm^  and  will  cer- 
tainly do  so  if  her  temper  is  ruffled  by  any  remissness  in  the 
daily  process  of  coaxing  and  conciliating  her. 

Hence  it  is  no  matter  of  surprise  that  an  outbreak  of  sick- 
ness in  the  village  was  attributed  entirely  to  a  little  temporary 


]\Iother-worship.  227 

slackness  in  supplying  her  with  her  daily  nutriment.  Extra- 
ordinary offerings,  therefore — some  of  them  accompanied  by 
the  killing  of  animals  and  pouring  out  of  blood — had  to 
be  made  till  the  disease  had  abated.  When  no  sickness 
remained  it  was  believed  that  the  Mother's  anger  was 
appeased,  no  further  trouble  was  taken,  and  everything 
returned  to  the  old  routine. 

Had  any  native  of  the  district  who  happened  to  have  been 
educated  at  the  Bombay  Presidency  College  suggested  a  little 
attention  to  sanitary  rules  as  a  more  effective  remedy  against 
cholera  or  small-pox,  he  would  have  been  laughed  to  scorn  by 
his  fellow-villagers. 

Each  of  the  remaining  139  Mothers  of  Gujarat  has  some 
speciality.  One,  named  BecarajT,  has  numerous  imageless 
shrines.  The  shrine  most  frequented  is  at  a  place  seventy-five 
miles  north  of  Ahmedabad.  Sometimes  she  is  represented  by 
a  coloured  square  figure,  divided  into  six  compartments. 

Another,  named  Untai,  causes  and  prevents  whooping- 
cough  ;  another,  named  Beral,  prevents  cholera ;  another,  called 
MarakI  (popularly  Mark!),  causes  cholera ;  another,  Hadakal, 
controls  mad-dogs  and  prevents  hydrophobia ;  another,  Asa- 
pura,  represented  by  two  idols,  satisfies  the  hopes  of  wives 
by  giving  children.     Others  are  Kalka  and  Hingraj. 

Not  a  few  are  worshipped  either  as  causing  or  protecting 
from  demoniacal  possession  as  a  form  of  bodily  disease.  The 
offering  of  goats'  blood  to  some  of  these  Mothers  is  supposed 
to  be  very  effectual ;  the  animals  are  not  always  killed. 

A  story  is  told  of  a  Hindu  doctor  who  cured  a  whole 
village  of  an  outbreak  of  virulent  influenza,  attributed  to  the 
malignant  influences  of  an  angry  goddess,  by  simply  assem- 
bling the  inhabitants,  muttering  some  cabalistic  texts,  and 
solemnly  letting  loose  a  pair  of  scape-goats  into  a  neigh- 
bouring wood  as  an  offering  to  the  offended  deity. 

The  small-pox  goddess  is  a  form  of  divine  mother  universally 
adored  under  different  names  through  every  part  of   India. 

Q  3 


228  Mother-worship. 

In  the  upper  provinces  she  is  called  Sitala  Devi,  or  simply 
Devi.  In  the  South  her  name  is  Marl-amman,  ^  Mother  of 
Death.'  This  goddess  may  either  avert  small-pox — of  which 
there  are  three  different  kinds — cause  small-pox,  or  be  herself 
small-pox.  In  some  parts  of  the  country  persons  who  die  of 
small-pox  are  not  burnt,  lest  the  goddess  herself  should  be 
burnt  too.  She  also  presides  over  cholera  and  other  diseases 
causing  death.  Her  shrines  are  generally  found  outside  vil- 
lages, under  trees,  or  in  groves,  and  are  often  associated  with 
the  shrines  of  Ganesa. 

Some  of  the  most  important  local  Mothers  in  the  South  are 
deifications  of  celebrated  women  who  Avere  great  benefac- 
tresses and  came  to  be  regarded  after  death  as  manifestations 
or  forms  of  Siva's  wife.  Such  are  MinacI  (for  Minakshl, 
worshipped  at  Madura),  KamacI,  VisalacI,  and  others. 

In  the  South  of  India  the  Mothers  are  called  Ammans. 

Notably  a  Mother  named  Ella-amman  presides  over  boun- 
daries, and  is  supposed  to  have  great  power  over  serpents  and 
to  be  particularly  fond  of  fish. 

Another,  called  Pidarl,  is  said  to  be  '  a  queen  among  the 
devils,^  because  all  who  hang  or  poison  themselves,  or  die  any 
violent  death,  are  turned  into  malignant  demons  who  would 
destroy  the  whole  human  race  if  not  kept  in  check  by  Pldarl. 

Other  Mothers  dreaded  for  their  fierce  nature  are  them- 
selves simply  demons ;  for  example,  Camunda,  Marudayl, 
and  Katerl.  The  last  is  an  evil  spirit  inhabiting  the  air,  and 
is  thought  to  be  too  aerial  in  character  to  be  represented  by 
an  image. 

All  these  Mothers  are  believed  to  "delight  in  blood  and  to 
drink  it.  Hence  the  blood  of  swine,  goats,  and  cocks,  besides 
all  kinds  of  cooked  grain,  are  offered  to  them.  One  Mother 
called  Kulumandi-amman  is  said  to  have  a  special  fancy  for 
black  kids,  and  can  only  be  appeased  and  prevented  from 
causing  sickness  and  death  if  the  blood  of  at  least  three  or 
four   thousand   such   kids   is   presented    to   her   every  year. 


Alot her -nor  ship.  229 

Sometimes  she  is  personated  by  a  man  who  is  carried  on 
the  shoulders  of  two  other  men  and  sucks  up  some  of  the 
blood  of  the  slaughtered  animals. 

When  a  woman  dies  unpurificd  within  fifteen  days  after 
childbirth  she  becomes  a  demon  called  Cudel  (Churel).  She 
is  then  always  on  the  watch  to  attack  other  young  mothers. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  power  of  at  least  one  well-disposed 
Mother  in  Gujarat  is  exerted  in  a  remarkable  way  for  the 
benefit  of  women  after  childbirth.  Among  a  very  low-caste 
set  of  basket-makers  (called  Pomla)  it  is  the  usual  practice  of 
a  wife  to  go  about  her  work  immediately  after  delivery,  as  if 
nothing  had  happened.  The  presiding  Mata  of  the  tribe  is 
supposed  to  transfer  her  weakness  to  her  husband,  who  takes 
to  his  bed  and  has  to  be  supported  with  good  nourishing  food. 

The  goddess  Shashthi  (Chathi)  protects  infants,  and  is 
therefore  worshipped  on  the  sixth  day  after  delivery.  She  is 
represented  by  a  simple  stone  set  up  under  some  tree. 

The  eight  Mothers  worshipped  by  the  Tantrikas  of  Bengal 
are  each  represented  with  a  child  in  her  lap,  and  it  is  remark- 
able that  Uma,  wife  of  Siva,  when  worshipped  as  a  type  of 
beauty  and  motherly  excellence,  is  always  regarded  as  a 
virgin^. 

All  the  Mothers  are  believed  to  have  control  over  magical 
powers,  and  especially  over  the  secret  operations  of  nature 
and  all  those  mysterious  occult  agencies  which  are  intensi- 
fied by  darkness  and  invisibility.  These  powers  and  preter- 
natural faculties  they  can  impart  to  their  worshippers,  if 
properly  propitiated.  This  is  a  proof  of  the  intimate  con- 
nexion subsisting  between  INIother-worship  and  the  doctrines 
of  Saktism  as  described  in  the  preceding  chapter. 

'  So  in  particular  churches  at  Munich  and  elsewhere  the  shrines  of 
the  black  Virgin  are  frequented  by  vast  numbers  of  pilgrims,  who  hang 
up  votive  offerings,  often  consisting  of  waxen  arms  and  legs,  around  her 
altar,  in  the  firm  belief  that  they  owe  the  restoration  of  broken  limbs 
and  the  recovery  from  various  diseases  to  her  intervention. 


CHAPTER   IX. 

Demon-worship  and  Spirit-worship. 

This  subject  has  already  been  to  some  extent  anticipated 
in  the  previous  chapter.  There  I  have  endeavoured  to  point 
out  that  the  universal  prevalence  of  the  worship  of  tutelary 
deities  among  the  great  mass  of  the  population  in  India  is 
the  result  of  a  perpetual  dread  of  evil  demons — a  dread  which 
haunts  Hindus  of  all  ranks  and  stations,  from  the  highest 
to  the  lowest,  with  the  exception  of  those  fortunate  persons 
whom  a  European  education  has  delivered  from  the  dominion 
of  superstitious  ideas. 

My  object  in  the  present  chapter  will  be  to  show  that 
the  very  demons  and  evil  spirits  are  as  much  objects  of  wor- 
ship as  the  gods  who  defend  men  from  their  malice ;  just  as 
the  tutelary  deities  may  themselves  under  aggravating  cir- 
cumstances turn  into  angry  demons  who  require  to  be 
propitiated  (see  p.  345). 

In  fact,  a  belief  in  every  kind  of  demoniacal  influence  has 
always  been  from  the  earliest  times  an  essential  ingredient 
in  Hindu  religious  thought.  The  idea  probably  had  its  origin 
in  the  supposed  peopling  of  the  air  by  spiritual  beings — the 
personifications  or  companions  of  storm  and  tempest.  Cer- 
tainly no  one  who  has  ever  been  brought  into  close  contact 
with  the  Hindus  in  their  own  country  can  doubt  the  fact 
that  the  worship  of  at  least  ninety  per  cent,  of  the  people 
of  India  in  the  present  day  is  a  worship  of  fear.  Not  that 
the  existence  of  good  deities  presided  over  by  one  Supreme 


Dcmon-ivorship  and  Spiril-icors/iip.  231 

Being  is  doubted  ;  but  that  these  deities  are  believed  to  be 
too  absolutely  good  to  need  propitiation ;  just  as  in  ancient 
histories  of  the  Slav  races,  we  are  told  that  they  believed 
in  a  white  and  a  black  god,  but  paid  adoration  to  the  last 
alone,  having,  as  they  supposed,  nothing  to  apprehend  from 
the  beneficence  of  the  first  or  white  divinity. 

The  simple  truth  is  that  evil  of  all  kinds,  difl^culties, 
dangers,  and  disasters,  famines,  diseases,  pestilences,  and 
death,  are  thought  by  an  ordinary  Hindu  to  proceed  from 
demons,  or,  more  properly  speaking,  from  devils,  and  from 
devils  alone.  These  malignant  beings  are  held,  as  we  have 
seen,  to  possess  varying  degrees  of  rank,  power,  and  male- 
volence. Some  aim  at  destroying  the  entire  world,  and 
threaten  the  sovereignty  of  the  gods  themselves.  Some 
delight  in  killing  men,  women,  and  children,  out  of  a  mere 
thirst  for  human  blood.  Some  take  a  mere  mischievous  plea- 
sure in  tormenting,  or  revel  in  the  infliction  of  sickness,  injury, 
and  misfortune.  All  make  it  their  business  to  mar  or  impede, 
the  progress  of  good  works  and  useful  undertakings. 

And  the  remarkable  thing  is,  that  the  power  wielded  by 
certain  arch-demons  over  men,  and  even  gods,  is  supposed 
to  have  been  acquired  by  the  practice  of  religious  austerities. 
It  is  said  of  the  demon  Ravana,  that  after  undergoing  severe 
austerities  in  a  forest  for  ten  thousand  years,  standing  in 
the  midst  of  five  fires  with  his  feet  in  the  air,  he  obtained 
from  the  god  Brahma  powers  greater  than  those  possessed 
by  the  gods  themselves. 

We  must,  however,  at  the  outset  guard  against  the  idea 
that  in  Hindu  mythology  the  expressions  devil  and  demon — 
any  more  than  the  Greek  8td/3oAoj  and  laiy-dii' — are  con- 
vertible terms  ;  or  that  these  two  words  at  all  adequately 
express  the  immense  variety  of  spiritual  beings  supposed  to 
hold  communication  with  man  or  liable  to  be  brought  into 
relationship  with  him. 

It  is  well  known   that   Indian    literature    makes   constant 


2  ^^2 


Demon-worship  and  Spirit-woyship. 


mention  of  numerous  regions  above  and  below  the  earth  which 
serve  as  the  abode  of  such  beings.  Thus  we  learn  from  the 
Epic  poems  and  Puranas  that  there  are  seven  upper  and 
seven  lower  worIdsV(see  p.  102,  note),  and  beneath  the  latter 
are  twenty-one  hells.  They  are  enumerated  in  Manu  IV. 
88-90,  and  others  are  added  in  Vishnu-purana  II.  6 2. 

The  hells  are  for  the  infliction  of  various  degrees  of  suf- 
fering on  sinful  men.  Yet  they  are  not  places  of  eternal 
punishment.  They  are  merely  temporary  purgatories  in- 
tended for  the  purification  of  those  who  have  led  wicked 
lives.  One  is  a  place  of  terrific  darkness ;  another  consists 
of  heated  caldrons  (tapta-kumbha)  ;  another  of  red-hot  iron 
(tapta-loha) ;  another  contains  pits  of  red-hot  charcoal ; 
another  of  blood  ;  another  is  a  dense  forest  whose  leaves 
are  sharp  swords ;  another  is  a  hell  of  pincers  (Sandansa)  ; 
another  is  a  sea  of  fetid  mud ;  another  is  a  plain  paved 
with  iron  spikes^. 

^  All  fourteen  worlds  are  believed  to  rest  on  the  thousand  heads  of  the 
great  serpent  Sesha  ;  or  the  earth  which  is  the  lowest  of  the  seven  upper 
worlds  is  supposed  to  be  supported  at  the  quarters  and  intermediate 
quarters  of  the  sky  by  eight  male  and  eight  female  mythical  elephants. 
Then,  again,  the  earth  is  thought  to  be  composed  of  seven  great  circular 
islands  (most  of  which  are  known  by  the  name  of  some  tree  or  plant, 
such  as  Jambu,  Kusa,  Plaksha,  Salmali),  surrounded  by  seven  circular 
seas,  all  of  which  are  described  in  Maha-bharata  VL  236,  etc.,  and  in 
the  Vishnu-purana  II.  2,  etc.     See  also  my  '  Indian  Wisdom,'  p.  419. 

'^  This  Purana  and  the  Bhagavata  make  twenty-eight  hells. 

'  In  a  recent  number  of  a  Chicago  paper  I  find  the  following  curiously 
parallel  ideas  quoted  from  a  Roman  Catholic  book  for  children,  by  the 
Rev.  J.  Furniss:  'The  fourth  dungeon  is  the  boiling  kettle.  Listen; 
there  is  a  sound  like  that  of  a  kettle  boiling.  The  blood  is  boiling  in 
the  scalded  brains  of  that  boy  ;  the  brain  is  boiling  and  bubbling  in  his 
head ;  the  marrow  is  boiling  in  his  bones.  The  fifth  dungeon  is  the  red- 
hot  oven,  in  which  is  a  little  child.  Hear  how  it  screams  to  come  out  ; 
see  how  it  turns  and  twists  itself  about  in  the  fire  ;  it  beats  its  head 
against  the  roof  of  the  oven  ;  it  stamps  its  feet  upon  the  floor  of  the 
oven.'  The  idea  of  terrific  torture  lasting  to  all  eternity  seems  a  wholly 
Western  conception.  The  same  Chicago  paper  goes  on  to  quote  from 
another  author  :  *  The  world  will  probably  be  converted  into  a  great  lake 
or  liquid  globe  of  fire,  in  which  the  wicked  shall  be  overwhelmed,  which 


Dcnion-worsJiip  and  Splrit-worsJiip.  233 

On  the  other  hand,  the  seven  worlds  immediately  below 
the  earth  arc  not  places  of  punishment  at  all.  According 
to  the  Vishnu-purana  (II.  5)  they  are  regions  adorned  with 
beautiful  palaces,  groves  and  streams,  where  the  sun  diffuses 
light,  not  heat,  and  the  moon  shines  for  illumination;  not 
for  cold  ;  where  the  air  is  resonant  with  the  song  of  birds,  and 
where  all  kinds  of  delicious  food  and  intoxicating  beverages 
are  ready  at  hand  for  the  benefit  of  those  who  wish  to  enjoy 
them.  All  seven  lower  regions,  and  especially  the  one  called 
Patrda,  are  inhabited  by  demoniacal  creatures — such  as  the 
Daityas  and  Danavas  (see  p.  238),  of  a  nature  not  neces- 
sarily wicked,  and  in  some  respects  superior  to  that  of  men — 
and  notably  by  a  race  half  men,  half  serpents,  called  Nagas. 
These  serpent-demons,  who  are  described  as  having  jewels 
in  their  headsj  are  fabled  to  have  sprung  from  Kadru  wife 
of  Kasyapa,  and  some  of  the  females  among  them  (naga- 
kanyas)  are  even  said  to  have  married  human  heroes  ^ 
They  are  ruled  over  by  three  chief  serpents  called  Sesha,- 
Vasuki,  and  Takshaka,  who  also  exercise  control  over  the 
ordinary  snakes  which  infest  the  earth. 

Again,  the  seven  upper  worlds,  including  the  world  which  is 

shall  always  be  in  tempest,  in  which  they  shall  be  tossed  to  and  fro, 
having  no  rest  day  nor  night  ....  their  heads,  their  eyes,  their  tongues, 
their  hands,  their  feet,  their  loins  and  their  vitals  shall  for"ever  be  full  of 
a  glowing,  melting  fire,  fierce  enough  to  melt  the  very  rocks  and  elements  ; 
also  they  shall  eternally  be  full  of  the  most  quick  and  lively  sense  to  feel 
the  torments  ;  not  for  one  minute,  nor  for  one  day,  nor  for  one  age,  nor 
two  ages,  nor  for  ten  thousand  millions  of  ages,  one  after  another,  but 
for  ever  and  ever.' 

Mr.  Spurgeon,  the  celebrated  Baptist  minister,  contributes  his  quota, 
thus  :  '  When  thou  diest  thy  soul  will  be  tormented  alone  ;  that  will  be 
hell  for  it  ;  but  at  the  Day  of  Judgment  thy  body  will  join  thy  soul  and 
thou  wilt  have  twin  hells ;  thy  soul  sweating  drops  of  blood,  and  thy  body 
suffused  with  agony.  In  fierce  fire,  exactly  like  that  we  have  on  earth, 
thy  body  will  be,  asbestos-like,  for  ever  unconsumed  ;  all  thy  veins  roads 
for  the  feet  of  pain  to  travel  on  ;  every  nerve  a  string  on  which  the  devil 
shall  for  ever  play  his  diabolical  tune  of  hell's  unutterable  lament.' 

^  In  this  way  UlupT  became  the  wife  of  Arjuna,  and,  curiously 
enough,  a  tribe  of  Rajputs,  now  existing,  claims  descent  from  the  Nagas. 


2  34  Dcvioii-zvo7'ship  and  Spirit-worship. 

the  peculiar  abode  of  man,  are  inhabited  by  countless  hosts  of 
superhuman  and  semi-divine  creatures  of  all  kinds.  Apparently- 
some  of  the  highest  worlds  are  set  apart  for  the  exclusive  occu- 
pation of  those  beatified  creatures  who  have  attained  a  state 
of  absolute  perfection  ;  for  example,  the  Siddhas  and  others. 
But  the  regions  just  above  the  earth— especially  the  region 
corresponding  to  the  atmosphere,  called  Bhuvar — are  tenanted 
by  numerous  and  demonized  spirits  of  dead  men,  superhuman 
beings,  who,  like  the  inhabitants  of  the  lower  worlds,  may 
fitly  be  designated  by  the  general  name  '  demons  V  They 
have  been  already  alluded  to  in  chapter  VIII  (p.  209).  Like 
men,  they  are  generally  gifted  with  free-will,  and  may  have 
good  or  evil  proclivities,  and  even  the  best  of  them  may  fall 
away  from  religion  and  virtue.  They  may  be  pious  or  im- 
pious, benevolent  or  malevolent,  merciful  or  cruel.  They  may 
be  obedient  to  the  gods  as  their  servants  or  followers,  or  may- 
be opposed  to  them  as  enemies.  Similarly  they  may  be 
the  friends  or  foes  of  man.  Some  of  these  beings  are  con- 
stantly traversing  the  earth  and  the  world  immediately  above 
the  earth.  They  are  innumerable  and  constitute  a  vast 
Pandemonium,  for  ever  balancing,  as  it  were,  the  equally  vast 
Pantheon  with  its  330  million  gods.  Moreover,  this  Pande- 
monium is  constantly  replenished,  as  we  shall  see,  with  new 
inhabitants  from  the  world  of  human  beings. 

And  here  again  we  must  guard  against  the  notion  that 
the  demons,  whether  good  or  bad,  of  Hindu  mythology  are 
in  their  nature  and  organization  wholly  spiritual  and  im- 
material. Though  they  are  sometimes  called  by  English 
writers  on  Hindu  mythology  'spirits,'  and  though  they  are 
certainly  endowed  with  frames  of  a  finer  and  more  ethereal 
structure  than  the  bodies  of  men,  and  not  necessarily  visible 
to  men,  yet  these  frames  have  for  their  essential  elements 
gross  (sthula)  material  particles.     In  point  of  fact,  according 

'  The  Sanskrit  term  Bhuta,  though  often  restricted  to  evil  demons 
and  devils,  may  be  used  generally  in  the  same  way.     Compare  p.  242. 


Demon-worship  and  Spirit-zvorsJiip.  235 

to  Hindu  ideas,  the  corporeal  organization  of  the  gcnerahty 
of  demons  stands  midway  between  that  of  men  and  gods. 
For  it  is  must  be  borne  in  mind  that,  in  accordance  with  the 
theory  before  explained,  even  the  gods  have  forms,  composed 
of  material  atoms  requiring  the  support  of  daily  food  (see 
pp.  22,  28,  Bhagavad-gita  III.  11},  that  they  are  capable  of 
undergoing  austerities  (see  Manu  XI.  243,  244),  that  they  are 
liable  to  passions  and  affections  like  men  and  animals,  and 
that  all,  not  excepting  the  one  Supreme  Personal  God,  are 
subject  to  the  inexorable  law  of  disintegration  and-  ultimate 
absorption  into  the  universal  and  sole  eternal  Essence.  In 
short,  gods,  demons,  and  men  are  so  closely  connected  and 
inter-related  that  it  is  difficult  to  draw  any  line  of  demarcation 
between  them.  All  three  are  subject  to  distinctions  of  sex  ; 
all  three  have  bodies  made  up  of  gross  elementary  (sthula) 
particles — only  these  are  ethereal  in  the  case  of  gods,  less 
ethereal  in  the  case  of  demons,  and  earthly  in  the  case  of 
men.  It  is  noticeable,  too,  that  all  men  living  on  the  earth 
are  said  to  fall  under  two  categories,  those  who  have  divine 
(daiva)  natures,  and  those  who  have  demoniacal  (asura),  and 
that  instances  are  recorded  of  demons  allying  themselves  with 
mortal  women.  These  ideas  are  quite  in  keeping  with  the 
theory  of  transmigration  (pp.  26-29). 

Moreover,  it  is  to  be  observed  that  as  it  is  common  to  find 
the  bodies  of  even  secondary  deities  possessed  of  an  extra 
number  of  hands  and  arms,  the  same  is  true  of  the  demons. 
Again,  as  all  the  gods  have  the  power  of  assuming  any  shape 
they  like  and  of  moving  through  the  air  in  all  directions,  so 
also  have  the  generality  of  demons.  In  epic  poetry  the  bodies 
of  the  gods  are  described  as  very  similar  to  those  of  men. 
They  differ  only  in  the  power  of  walking  above  the  surface  of 
the  ground,  in  being  shadowless,  in  being  free  from  per- 
spiration, in  having  eyes  that  never  wink,  and  flowery  orna- 
ments that  never  wither  (Nala  V.  24).  Whether  these  latter 
attributes  belong  also  to  all  demon-frames  is  not  so  clear. 


236  Danon-zuorship  and  Spirit-zvorship. 

Some  classes  of  demons  have  shapes  peculiarly  their  own  which 
they  cannot  alter.  In  general  they  are  dwarfish  and  shorter 
than  men\  but  the  majority  enjoy  the  faculty  of  assuming  any 
shape  suited  to  their  needs,  and  even  that  of  human  beings. 

It  would  be  difficult  in  fact  to  enumerate  all  the  varieties 
of  these  beings,  separable  as  they  are,  both  good  and  bad, 
into  numberless  classes  according  to  differences  of  rank, 
powers,  and  functions. 

Nevertheless,  it  is  important  to  note  that  they  all  fall 
under  two  grand  divisions.  The  first  division  embraces  all 
demons  created  by  God  at  the  creation  of  the  world,  or 
brought  into  existence  by  the  act  of  superior  deities  at  other 
times. 

The  second  comprehends  all  demons  whose  creation  or 
production  is  due  to  men,  that  is  to  say,  to  the  spirits  of 
men  who  have  once  lived  upon  the  earth. 

To  begin  with  the  first  of  these  grand  divisions,  although  it 
is  said  to  comprise  seven  principal  classes  of  beings  cor- 
responding to  the  seven  worlds — seven  demon-kings,  with 
frames  in  stature  equal  to  a  palm-tree,  being  mentioned  in 
the  Sahkara-vijaya  (chap.  LI) — yet  it  would  be  easy  to  show 
by  extracts  from  both  the  earlier  and  later  sacred  literature 
that  no  clearly  definite  classification  or  arrangement  of 
demoniacal  creatures  in  any  regular  series  or  gradation  is 
possible. 

Probably  the  earliest  Sanskrit  expression  for  a  '  demon'  is 
Asura;  and  we  know  that  although  this  word  is  used  in  the 
later  literature  as  a  general  term  for  evil  demons  of  malignant 
disposition,  it  was  originally  restricted  to  beings  of  a  god-like 
nature,  and  even  applied  to  the  gods  themselves. 

Thus  in  the  Rig-veda  the  word  Asura  is  used  as  the  epithet 
of  Indra,  the  Maruts,  Rudra,  and  other  deities,  and  is  espe- 
cially an  attribute  of  the  ancient  deity  Varuna,  who  is  first 

'  I  noticed  that  all  Siva's  troops  of  demons  are  represented  as  dwarfish 
in  the  sculptures  of  the  caves  of  Elephanta. 


Dcmon-'woyship  and  Spirt t-zvo7' ship.  237 

an  impersonation  of  the  vault  of  heaven,  and  then  identified 
with  the  Supreme  Being. 

Furthermore,  in  the  Taittirlya-Sarnhita  (VI.  4.  lo.  1)  it  is 
said  that  there  was  an  original  cquah'ty  in  goodness  and 
power  between  the  gods  and  Asuras^ 

In  the  Taittiriya-Brahmana,  Praja-pati,  or  ^the  Lord  of 
Creation,'  creates  the  Asuras  with  his  breath  (asu).  In  the 
Satapatha-Brahmana  the  seventh  Manu  (or  Manu  of  the 
present  period)  is  made  to  produce  gods,  Asuras,  and  men. 
In  other  passages  of  the  Brahmanas  they  are  said  to  have 
their  own  priests  and  sacrificial  rites. 

On  the  other  hand,  in  the  Veda  various  orders  of  evil 
beings  are  spoken  of  under  the  name  of  Dasyus,  Rakshasas, 
Yatudhanas,  Kimldins,  and  are  described  as  without  religious 
rites,  godless,  haters  of  prayer  (brahma-dvish),  eaters  of 
flesh  (kravyad),  monstrous  in  form,  and  possessors  of  magical 
powers^. 

Then,  again,  in  Manu's  law-book  (I.  37)  we  find  it  stated 
that  the  ten  Praja-patis  or  secondary  creators,  after  creating 
the  gods  and  great  sages,  afterwards  created  various  orders  of 
beings,  such  as  the  Yakshas,  Rakshasas,  Pisa(5as,  Gandharvas, 
Apsarases,  Asuras,  Nagas,  etc.  It  is  not  affirmed  that  any 
of  these  beings  were  aboriginally  evil-minded  or  malignant, 
though  they  were  certainly  capable  of  becoming  so.  In 
the  Ramayana  constant  mention  is  made  of  beings  hostile 
to  gods  and  men  called  Rakshasas.  They  are  the  haters  and 
disturbers  of  religious  rites,  they  change  their  shapes  at  will, 
harass  holy  men  and  devotees,  and  utter  frightful  sounds 
in  the  ears  of  the  faithful. 

Most  Rakshasas  are  men-eaters,  and  one,  called  Viradha,  is 
described  as  resembling  a  mountain-peak,  with  long  legs,  a 
crooked  nose,  hideous  eyes,  pendant  belly,  and  an  open 
mouth  like  that  of  death.    At  the  head  of  them  is  the  Demon 

^  Muir's  Sanskrit  Texts,  v.  230.  '  Ibid,  ii,  41S. 


238  Demon-worship  and  Spirit-worship. 

Ravana,  who  is  an  impersonation  of  selfish  ambition.  It  does 
not  appear,  however,  that  in  other  respects  he  was  innately 
wicked.  On  the  contrary,  it  was  only  by  severe  religious 
austerities  carried  on  for  ten  thousand  years  that  he  acquired 
unbounded  power  over  gods  and  men.  Others,  too,  of  these 
same  Rakshasas  are  described  as  virtuous  and  pious,  and 
among  them  especially  Vibhishana,  who  is  the  brother  of 
Ravana,  and  exactly  his  opposite  in  character  and  conduct. 
In  the  Mahabharata,  again,  Kansa,  Kali,  and  numerous  other 
demons  are,  like  Ravana  in  the  Ramayana,  impersonations 
of  evil.  Kansa  is  the  implacable  enemy  of  Krishna,  and 
Kali  is  for  ever  instilling  evil  thoughts  into  men^s  hearts 
in  an  age  of  universal  degeneration. 

We  may  note,  too,  that  in  epic  poetry  frequent  mention  is 
made  of  another  class  of  beings  who  are  more  especially 
hostile  to  the  gods,  and  for  ever  engaged  in  warfare  with 
them.  They  are  called  Daityas,  as  the  supposed  children 
of  the  goddess  Diti  by  Kasyapa  (the  gods  being  children  of 
Aditi).  Others,  too,  are  often  alluded  to  under  the  name 
of  Danavas,  as  daughters  of  Danu.  Both  of  these  classes 
of  beings  are  said  in  the  Vishnu-purana  to  occupy  some  of 
the  seven  regions  below  the  earth  of  which  Patala  is  one 
(II.  5),  and  appear  to  belong  to  a  higher  order  of  creation 
than  the  Rakshasas,  whose  nature  is  of  a  type  inclined  to 
baser  forms  of  wickedness,  and  whose  malignity  is  more 
particularly  directed  against  men. 

Then  there  are  troops  (ganas)  of  beings  called  Pramathas, 
who  constitute  the  armies  of  the  god  Siva.  There  are  also  the 
Yakshas,  who  wait  on  Kubera  (Kuvera),  and  the  Gandharvas 
(Atharva-veda  XI.  5.  2)  or  heavenly  choristers,  and  their 
wives  the  Apsarases,  who  attend  on  Indra.  To  these  may 
be  added  the  Kinnaras  (with  human  figure  and  equine  head), 
the  Kimpurushas,  the  Vidya-dharas,  Pannagas,  &c. 

Most  of  these  creatures  are  good  and  benign  in  character ; 
but  all  were  created  free  agents,  and  are  therefore  liable  to 


Devion-iL'orship  and  Spit' it-worship.  239 

fall  away,  and  after  committing  acts  of  sin  or  disobedience 
may  become  malignant  beings  animated  with  a  spirit  of 
bitter  hostility  towards  gods  and  men. 

It  is  in  consonance  with  the  theory  of  a  continual  conflict 
between  the  powers  of  good  and  the  powers  of  evil  that  we 
find  the  chief  gods  of  the  Hindu  Pantheon  constantly  repre- 
sented in  the  act  of  crushing  their  demon  foes.  Thus  Krishna 
is  seen  bruising  the  head  of  the  great  demon  serpent  Kaliya, 
while  Siva  tramples  on  the  arch-fiend  Tripura,  and  holds 
venomous  serpents  in  his  hands  in  token  of  his  supremacy 
over  all  malignant  influences. 

Hence,  too,  a  great  number  of  the  1,000  names  of  both 
Vishnu  and  Siva  will  be  found  to  be  simple  epithets — like 
Murari  'enemy  of  Mura,'  Purari  *  enemy  of  Pura' — significant 
of  their  victory  over  certain  typical  demon  antagonists. 
Furthermore,  the  symbols  held  in  the  hands  of  both  deities, 
the  discus  and  club  of  Vishnu,  and  the  trident  and  bow  of 
Siva,  are  merely  weapons  of  supposed  irresistible  efficacy  in 
their  conflicts  with  the  spirits  of  evil. 

We  pass  on  now  to  the  second  great  division  of  the  demon 
world — that  which  is  said  to  owe  its  creation  to  man.  This 
is  by  far  the  more  important  of  the  two  great  divisions  in  its 
bearing  on  the  subject  of  the  present  chapter,  for  it  is  chiefly 
to  those  demons  whose  existence  is  derived  from  the  departed 
spirits  of  human  beings  that  adoration  and  propitiation  are 
commonly  offered. 

And,  indeed,  it  is  a  noteworthy  point  in  the  religious  creed 
of  all  ordinary  Hindiis  that  the  majority  of  malignant  devils 
are  believed  to  have  been  originally  human  beings. 

If  any  man  is  killed  by  a  tiger  or  the  bite  of  a  snake,  or 
has  died  a  sudden  violent  death  of  any  kind,  away  from  his 
relations  and  out  of  reach  of  proper  funeral  ceremonies,  he 
forthwith  becomes  an  unquiet  spirit,  roaming  about  with 
malevolent  proclivities.  In  one  place  I  found  people  wor- 
shipping the  ghost  of  a  milkman  who  was  killed  by  a  tiger 


240  Dcmon-worsJiip  and  Spirit-worship. 

and  became  a  devil.  In  another  place  the  ghost  of  a  potter 
became  a  devil  and  a  terror  to  the  neighbourhood.  The  priests 
of  these  demons  were  milkmen  and  potters  respectively. 

And  a  curious  notion  prevails  in  some  parts  of  India  that, 
the  better  the  man,  the  more  mischievous  will  his  ghost  turn 
out  to  be,  if  his  body  has  not  received  proper  cremation, 
or  if  from  any  accident  the  succeeding  rites  have  not  been 
carefully  performed  or  partially  omitted. 

Again,  a  still  more  remarkable  doctrine  is  rife  in  India, 
especially  in  the  South.  There  it  is  a  fixed  article  of  belief 
that  when  a  man  notorious  for  any  particular  vices  dies,  the 
man  himself  may  become  extinct,  but  his  evil  nature  never 
dies,  for  every  one  of  his  vices  then  assumes  personality  and 
lives  after  him  as  a  demon. 

And  this  applies  equally  to  women,  so  that  the  resulting 
demons  may  be  of  either  sex,  and  the  female  is  not  unfre- 
quently  more  spiteful  and  malignant  than  the  male.  It  also 
applies  to  persons  of  all  castes,  high  or  low,  so  that  the 
demons  created  may  be  of  all  ranks,  and  may  have  either 
refined  or  low  tastes. 

It  is  thus  that  legion  after  legion  of  foul  fiends  and  un- 
clean spirits  bearing  names  corresponding  to  such  expressions 
as  deceit-devils,  lying-devils,  gambling-devils,  pride-devils, 
cruelty-devils,  lust-devils,  gluttony-devils,  strife-devils,  drunk- 
enness-devils, arc  supposed  to  have  originated. 

The  same  applies  to  a  man  who  has  been  guilty  of  great 
crimes  or  sins.  His  crimes  and  sins  live  after  him  in  the 
shape  of  malignant  demons. 

Hence  have  arisen  any  number  of  murder-devils,  theft- 
devils,  perjury-devils,  adultery-devils,  blasphemy-devils,  who 
are  always  on  the  look-out  for  weak-minded  victims,  and  ever 
instigating  them  to  the  commission  of  similar  crimes. 

Nay,  a  man  may  sometimes  become  a  demon  without 
dying  ;  for  example,  we  read  in  the  Maha-bharata  and  Vishnu- 
purana  that  Nahusha  son  of  Ayus  was  changed  into  a  serpent- 


Dcmon-'worship  and  Spirit-worship.  241 

demon  in  consequence  of  a  curse  pronounced  on  him  by  the 
sage  Agastya  for  his  excessive  pride  in  having  gained  by 
penance  the  rank  of  Indra  and  then  insulted  some  of  the 
Rishis  (Maha-bh.V.343 ;  Vishnu-purana,  p.413 ;  Manu  VII.  41). 

Furthermore,  all  the  diseases  that  either  human  or  bestial 
flesh  is  heir  to  are  personified  and  converted  into  demons — 
such  as  the  demons  of  small-pox,  of  cholera,  and  of  various 
forms  of  typhus  and  jungle  fever,  and  of  cattle-disease.  And 
this  idea  of  personifying  and  demonizing  diseases  is  extended 
to  unseasonable  calamities  and  disasters,  such  as  hail-storms, 
drought  and  blight,  which  all  do  duty  in  the  devil  army. 
Indeed,  I  found  to  my  surprise  that  some  villages  in  India 
possess  a  professional  exorciser  or  charmer,  called  Garpagfirl 
(probably  for  Gar-apakari,  gar  in  Marathl  meaning  'hail'), 
whose  sole  business  consists  in  repeating  incantations  to 
charm  away  the  hail-storm-demon  from  the  growing  crops. 

It  is  important,  however,  to  bear  in  mind  that  there  is  in 
Hinduism  a  per-contra  side  to  the  vastness  of  the  demon-host. 
For  if  it  is  an  awful  thought  that  year  after  year,  and  even  day 
by  day,  men  and  women  are  themselves  through  their  sinful 
habits  causing  fresh  accessions  to  the  demon-armies,  it  is,  on 
the  other  hand,  a  comforting  reflection  that  the  ranks  of  good 
demons  and  benevolent  spirits  are  continually  recruited  b}' 
the  deaths  of  righteous  men,  saints  and  sages,  who  are  ranged 
with  the  gods  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  battle-field,  and 
are  ever  contending  with  their  fiendish  antagonists. 

It  is,  then,  these  lower  forms  of  evil  demons— once  the 
occupants  of  human  bodies — that  are  most  dreaded  by  the 
generality  of  Hindus,  and  therefore  most  worshipped.  Such 
demons  fitly  take  rank  with  devils. 

According  to  some  authorities  they  may  be  grouped  under 
the  three  classes  of  Bhuta,  Preta,  and  Pisaca,  each  class 
having  a  distinct  origin. 

A  Bhuta,  they  say,  is  a  spirit  emanating  from  a  man 
who  has  died  a  violent  death  either  by  accident,  suicide,  or 

R 


242  Demon-iuo}'ship  and  Spirit-worship. 

capital  punishment,  and  has  not  had  proper  funeral  cere- 
monies performed  afterwards. 

A  Preta  is  the  spirit  of  a  deformed  or  crippled  person, 
or  of  one  defective  in  some  limb  or  organ,  or  of  a  child  that 
dies  prematurely,  owing  to  the  omission  of  ceremonies  during 
the  formation  of  the  embryo.  It  is  not  necessarily  wicked  or 
malicious  or  evil-disposed  towards  living  men. 

A  Pisaca  is  a  demon  created  by  a  man's  vices.  It  is  the 
ghost  of  a  liar,  drunkard,  adulterer,  or  criminal  of  any  kind, 
or  of  one  who  has  died  insane. 

In  real  truth,  however,  this  kind  of  triple  classification  is 
nowhere  universally  accepted,  and  is  never  consistently  main- 
tained. My  own  inquiries  led  me  to  the  conclusion  that  the 
terms  Bhuta  and  Preta  are  as  a  general  rule  applied  to  all 
demons  and  ghosts  indifferently,  and  the  term  Pisaca  to 
malicious  and  mischievous  imps  and  fiends.  Such  demons 
and  malicious  beings  haunt  cemeteries  or  take  up  their  abode 
in  trees,  and  are  addicted  to  roaming  about  between  the 
hours  of  12  and  3  in  the  morning.  They  may  take  either 
hideous  or  beautiful  shapes,  and  even  the  form  of  men. 
They  require,  as  we  have  seen,  the  support  of  food  ;  and 
what  satiates  their  appetites  more  than  any  other  kind  of 
nutriment  is  the  blood  of  living  animals.  But  according  to 
popular  belief  they  may  also  feed  on  corpses,  ordure  and 
carrion,  and  may  even  occupy  and  vivify  dead  bodies.  Nay, 
they  may  enter  living  bodies  through  the  open  mouth  if 
it  happen  to  be  opened  imprudently  wide.  Thus,  if  a  man 
in  an  unguarded  moment  yawns  or  gapes  without  holding  his 
hand  or  snapping  his  fingers  before  his  face,  they  may 
promptly  dart  in  and  take  up  their  abode  in  his  interior, 
feeding  on  the  refuse  of  the  food  as  it  passes  through  the 
intestines. 

When  malignant  demons  thus  take  possession  of  the 
bodies  of  living  men,  they  may  cause  diseases  and  un- 
pleasant  affections   of  all   kinds,  or   they   may  agitate  the 


Demon-worship  and  Spirit-zijorship.  243 

limbs   of  the   person   possessed,   and    impel   him   to  frantic 
movements,  in  which  all  devils  take  particular  delight. 

Occasionally  they  may  take  the  shape  or  character  of  a 
dog,  cat,  serpent,  or  other  animal.  It  is  fully  believed  that 
if  a  person  happens  to  be  possessed  by  a  dog-demon  he  will 
take  to  barking  like  a  dog. 

With  regard  to  so-called  worship  I  need  scarcely  repeat  that 
there  is  no  real  worship.  Nor  has  any  demon — not  even  one 
of  the  highest  class  —  any  imposing  temple-like  structure 
erected  to  him.  Often  a  mere  heap  of  earth  piled  up  in 
pyramidal  shape  near  some  tree,  or  a  similar  erection  formed 
with  bricks  and  painted  with  streaks  of  white,  constitutes  the 
only  shrine,  while  another  heap  in  front  with  a  flat  surface 
does  duty  for  the  altar.  Sometimes  the  whole  is  covered 
with  a  wooden  roof  supported  on  rough  columns.  There  is 
rarely  any  idol ;  though  sometimes,  if  the  demon's  origin  be 
traceable  to  the  ghost  of  some  high  personage,  whose  elevation 
of  rank  or  office  made  him  during  lifetime  formidable  to  his 
followers,  he  may  be  represented  by  a  rude  image  of  some  of 
the  terrible  forms  of  Siva.  No  real  prayers  are  said  at  such 
shrines,  though  incantations  may  be  recited.  The  propitia- 
tion consists  in  offerings  of  food,  as  mentioned  in  the  preceding 
chapter  (p.  221),  and  in  various  ceremonies  which  differ  in 
different  localities. 

A  spirit  of  one  of  these  classes  highly  reverenced  and  very 
commonly  propitiated  by  villagers  in  some  parts  of  India 
is  one  popularly  called  Bhumya,  or  the  '  earth-spirit.'  He  is 
supposed  to  be  the  spirit  of  the  founder  of  the  village.  If 
a  village  is  deserted  by  its  inhabitants,  no  new  colony  of 
people  will  dare  to  settle  there  without  going  through  a 
careful  process  of  propitiating  the  earth-spirit,  who  never, 
under  any  circumstances,  quits  his  old  haunts. 

Another  class  consists  of  the  spirits  of  young  men  who 
have  died  without  becoming  fathers.  These  wander  about 
in  a  restless  misei-able  manner,  like  people  burdened  with 

R  2 


244  Demon-zvorship  and  Spirit-ivorship. 

an  enormous  debt  which  they  are  quite  unable  to  discharge. 
They  are  euphemistically  called  Pitas,  '  fathers,'— that  is, 
by  the  name  to  which  they  are  least  entitled, — and  are 
propitiated  by  offerings  presented  at  small  shrines  of  a  very 
simple  construction  erected  near  rivers  or  pools  of  water. 
Often  these  shrines  are  formed  by  merely  setting  up  two 
bricks  with  a  little  interval  between  them  covered  by  another 
brick. 

And  here  it  should  be  noted  that  although  nearly  every 
village  has  its  own  special  demon,  whose  cultus  may  not 
only  have  existed  from  time  immemorial,  but  may  have  an 
origin  antecedent  to  the  introduction  of  Hinduism,  yet  it  is 
always  possible  to  connect  every  form  and  variety  of  such 
worship  with  that  of  the  god  Siva,  his  consort  Durga  (or 
Devi),  and  his  two  sons  Ganesa  and  Su-brahmanya  (see 
page  212). 

It  is  important,  too,  to  bear  in  mind  that  as  the  South  of 
India  is  the  region  in  which  Saivism  is  particularly  prevalent, 
so  also  it  is  among  the  inhabitants  of  the  South  that  devil- 
worship  is  most  systematically  practised.  No  one  who  has 
travelled  in  that  region  can  doubt  that  demonophobia  is  a 
disease  with  which  the  whole  Southern  population  is  almost 
hopelessly  and  incurably  afiflicted.  Possibly  one  reason  of 
this  may  be  that  when  the  Dravidians  invaded  India  they 
found  the  South  inhabited  by  wild  aboriginal  savages,  whose 
whole  aspect  and  demeanour  appeared  to  them  to  resemble 
those  of  devils.  Again,  the  Aryans  as  they  advanced  towards 
the  South  found  it  occupied  by  hostile  Dravidian  races,  as 
well  as  by  apparently  aboriginal  tribes,  and  their  excited 
imaginations  converted  these  powerful  enemies  into  super- 
natural giants,  and  the  most  formidable  of  them  into  veritable 
demons  (Rakshasas). 

In  due  time  Aryans,  Dravidians,  and  aborigines  blended 
amicably  together,  but  the  dread  of  demon-foes  remained, 
and  this  dread  still  prevails  not  only  in  the  South,  but  over 


Dauoii-n'orship  and  Spirit-zuorsh'ip.  245 

every  part  of  India.  In  fact,  so  deep-seated  and  ineradicable 
is  the  fear  of  evil  spirits  in  the  minds  of  the  lower  orders,  that 
in  many  villages  of  India  the  doors  of  the  houses  are  never 
allowed  to  face  the  South,  lest  the  entrance  of  some  dreaded 
demon  should  be  facilitated.  Perhaps,  however,  the  true 
devil-region  is  the  extreme  Southern  peninsula,  near  the 
Island  of  Ceylon.  The  nearer  indeed  we  approach  that 
island,  the  more  do  we  find  the  people  (like  the  Shanars  of 
Tinnevelly)  steeped  in  demonolatry  and  saturated  with  every 
form  of  superstitious  fear  of  evil  spirits,  ghosts,  and  goblins. 

Every  village  has  its  own  peculiar  devil  or  devils,  to  the 
attacks  of  which  it  is  constantly  in  imagination  exposed. 
Happily  every  village  has  also,  as  we  have  already  pointed  out, 
its  own  tutelary  deities.  Curiously,  too,  many  good  spirits 
are  believed  to  be  equestrian  in  their  tastes.  Possibly  the 
villagers  suppose  that  by  turning  them  into  a  kind  of  cavalry 
regiment  they  give  them  an  advantage  over  their  impish  op- 
ponents, who  prowl  about  on  foot,  and  sneak  into  the  village 
domain  at  unguarded  corners. 

Certain  it  is  that  to  propitiate  these  tutelary  divinities  the 
villagers  set  up  horses  of  baked  clay  in  their  fields — often  as  large 
as  life,  and  generally  ten  or  twenty  in  a  row  or  in  a  semicircle 
round  a  shrine — and  present  them  as  offerings  to  the  good 
divinity  of  the  shrine,  in  token  of  gratitude  for  deliverances. 

They  are  especially  presented — though  not  without  other 
oblations — to  the  male  guardian  God  Ayenar  (see  p.  219), 
who  is  believed  to  be  a  daring  horseman  capable  of  clearing 
hedges  and  ditches  and  riding  down  the  most  active  demon- 
antagonist. 

As  to  the  female  tutelary  deities  called  Mothers  (see  p.  223), 
we  have  already  seen  that  if  not  propitiated  by  constant 
offerings,  and  especially  with  blood,  they  will  themselves 
assume  the  personality  of  the  very  demon  dreaded  by  the 
villagers,  and  inflict  the  very  plague  from  which  they  usually 
protect  them. 


246  Demon-ivorship  and  Spirit-worship. 

The  most  terrible  and  implacable  of  all  demons  are  those 
created  by  Europeans.  Of  course  the  propitiating  process 
must  vary  according  to  the  character  of  the  man  whose 
demonized  spirit  is  to  be  coaxed  into  good-humour.  His 
tastes  and  idiosyncrasies  during  life  must  be  carefully  inquired 
into  and  judiciously  indulged.  The  story  is  told  of  a  certain 
choleric  Englishman  who  was  a  terror  to  the  inhabitants  of  a 
district  in  the  South  of  India,  and  whose  ghost  after  his  death 
had  to  be  constantly  appeased  by  offerings  of  good  cooked 
meat,  brandy,  soda-water,  and  cigars  placed  daily  on  his 
tomb.  The  same  was  done  to  secure  the  continued  good-will 
of  a  philanthropic  sportsman,  who  when  he  was  alive  delivered 
a  large  tract  of  country  from  the  ravages  of  tigers. 

And  here  we  may  note  other  methods  of  neutralizing  the 
evil  influences  of  demons  prevalent  in  Southern  India.  Male 
and  female  devils  are  supposed  to  delight  in  dancing,  particu- 
larly when  accompanied  with  wild  cries,  violent  gesticulations, 
ringing  of  bells,  and  noisy  discordant  music.  Hence  it  happens 
that,  when  pestilence  is  rife  in  any  district,  professional  exor- 
cisers,  or  certain  persons  selected  for  the  purpose,  paint  their 
faces,  put  on  hideous  masks,  dress  up  in  fantastic  garments, 
arm  themselves  with  strange  weapons,  and  commence  dancing. 
Their  object  is  to  personate  particular  devils,  or  rather  per- 
haps to  induce  such  devils  to  leave  the  persons  of  their  victims 
and  to  occupy  the  persons  of  the  dancers,  who  shriek,  fling 
themselves  about,  and  work  themselves  up  into  a  phrenzy  of 
excitement,  amid  beating  of  tom-toms,  blowing  of  horns,  and 
ringing  of  bells.  When  the  dancers  are  thoroughly  exhausted 
by  their  gesticulations  they  sink  down  in  a  kind  of  trance,  and 
arc  then  believed  to  be  actually  possessed  by  the  spirit  of  the 
demon  and  are  turned  for  a  time  into  demon-mediums,  gifted 
with  clairvoyance  and  a  power  of  delivering  prophetic  utter- 
ances. The  spectators  ask  them  questions  about  missing 
relatives  or  future  events,  and  their  deliverances  are  supposed 
to  be  oracular. 


Danon-worship  and  Spij-it-zuorship.  247 

I  witnessed  such  a  dance  on  a  dark  ni<jht  in  a  garden  near 
Columbo  in  Ceylon.  The  dancers  represented  the  demons  of 
various  forms  of  typhus  fever,  carried  flaring  torches,  wore 
hideous  masks,  and  had  jingh'ng  bells  on  their  legs.  Their 
wild  cries  and  horrible  antics  will  remain  indelibly  impressed 
on  my  recollection. 

When  I  was  at  Tanjor  the  late  learned  Dr.  Burncll,  then 
judge  of  that  district,  gave  me  some  interesting  information  in 
regard  to  the  demon-festivals  which  recur  periodically  in  the 
district  of  Mangalor,  where  he  held  ofiice  for  some  time. 

One  of  the  most  popular  of  these  festivals,  called  Illec'chida 
Nema,  is  celebrated  every  fifteen  or  twenty  years.  At 
another  called  Kallyata,  a  wild  dance  is  performed  every 
sixtieth  year  before  a  particular  rock  or  stone,  which  is  sup- 
posed to  tremble  and  shake  periodically. 

Sometimes  the  performance  takes  place  in  a  large  shed  in 
the  middle  of  which  burns  a  common  lamp  under  a  canopy. 
Around  are  images  of  the  Bhutas.  At  the  distance  of  about 
a  foot  in  front  of  the  lamp  is  placed  a  common  w^ooden 
tripod-stand,  two  or  three  feet  high,  on  which  is  constructed 
a  square  frame  of  cocoa-nut  leaves.  Inside  this  frame  a 
quantity  of  rice  and  turmeric  is  piled  into  a  pyramid  into 
which  a  three-branched  iron  lamp  is  inserted.  Around  are 
arranged  offerings  consisting  of  fruits  and  living  victims,  such 
as  fowls  and  goats.  The  latter  are  adorned  with  garlands, 
and  both  fowls  and  goats  are  afterwards  decapitated,  the 
warm  blood  being  either  poured  out  on  the  ground  or  on  the 
altar,  or  else  drunk  by  the  officiating  priest.  The  idea  is  that 
the  demon  thirsts  for  blood,  and  becomes  irritated  if  his 
cravings  are  not  satisfied.  The  sole  object  of  sacrificing 
animals  is  to  assuage  his  thirst  and  appease  his  anger. 

All  this  is  preliminary  to  the  principal  performance,  which 
takes  place  in  an  open  space  in  front  of  the  slaughtered 
victims.  The  priest,  or  some  other  devotee  who  has  under- 
gone a  long  preparatory  fasting,  comes  forward  to  personate 


248  Danon-worship  and  Spirit-worship, 

a  particular  demon.  He  is  dressed  up  in  a  fantastic  costume, 
often  covered  with  grotesque  dangling  ornaments  and  jingling 
bells.  Sometimes  he  wears  a  hideous  mask  ;  sometimes  his 
face  is  daubed  with  paint  of  different  colours.  In  one  hand 
he  holds  a  sword,  trident,  or  other  implement,  and  perhaps  a 
bell  in  the  other.  He  then  commences  dancing  or  pacing  up 
and  down  in  an  excited  manner,  amid  beating  of  tom-toms, 
blowing  of  horns,  and  all  kinds  of  noisy  music,  while  an 
attendant  sings  songs,  or  recites  rude  poems  descriptive  of 
the  deeds  of  the  demons.  Meanwhile  spirituous  hquor  is 
distributed,  the  performer  becomes  violently  excited,  and  the 
demon  takes  complete  possession  of  him.  Finally  he  suc- 
cumbs in  an  hysterical  fit,  and  gives  out  oracular  responses  to 
any  inquiries  addressed  to  him.  Most  of  the  bystanders 
consult  him  as  to  their  several  wants  and  destinies,  or  the 
welfare  of  absent  relatives,  but  are  not  allowed  to  do  so  with- 
out first  presenting  offerings. 

Of  course,  variations  occur  in  different  districts. 

According  to  Mr.  Walhouse,  in  his  paper  read  before  the 
Anthropological  Institute^  the  structures  and  observances  con- 
nected with  devil-worship  on  the  Western  coast  of  India  are 
both  domestic  and  public.  In  villages,  and  very  generally  in 
towns,  there  is  in  every  house  a  wooden  cot  or  cradle,  placed 
on  the  ground  or  suspended  by  ropes  or  chains,  and  dedicated 
to  the  Bhuta  of  the  spot.  On  these  are  deposited  a  bell,  a  knife 
or  sword,  and  a  pot  filled  with  water,  all  which  are  collectively 
called  the  Bhandara  of  the  Bhuta,  and  kept  either  in  a  part 
of  the  house  itself,  or  in  a  small  separate  building.  The 
object  seems  to  be  to  propitiate  the  spirit  that  haunts  the  spot 
by  making  a  sort  of  abode  for  it. 

On  the  last  day  of  every  lunar  month  flowers  are  laid  on 
the  cot,  and  perfume  burnt  before  it ;  and  once  a  year,  towards 
the  end  of  April,  a  ceremony  called  Tambila  is  performed. 
A  fire  is  lit  on  the  spot  where  the  cot  and  paraphernalia 
stand,  then  fried  rice,  mixed  with  coarse  sugar  and  grated 


Demon-ivorsJiip  and  Spirii-iuorship.  249 

cocoa-nut  kernel,  is  heaped  on  two  plantain  leaves,  which  are 
placed  on  the  cot,  together  with  some  young  cocoa-nuts, 
pierced  ready  to  drink  from.  A  ball  is  then  formed  of  boiled 
rice,  coloured  yellow  with  turmeric,  and  laid  on  a  piece  of 
plantain-leaf  on  a  small  stool,  which  is  placed  before  the  cot, 
with  a  lighted  torch  upon  it.  A  fowl  is  held  above  the  rice- 
ball  and  torch,  its  throat  cut,  and  the  blood  allowed  to  drop 
upon  the  ball ;  some  perfume  is  burnt,  and  the  ceremony  ends. 
Should  a  member  of  the  family  be  stricken  with  any  unusual 
attack,  a  fowl  is  turned  three  times  round  before  the  patient's 
face,  its  neck  then  twisted,  and  the  blood  let  fall  upon  him  ; 
the  meaning  being  to  offer  life  for  life — the  fowl  in  lieu  of  the 
man.  The  family  priest  is  then  consulted,  who  recommends 
alms  to  be  given  to  himself  to  satisfy  the  hostile  stars,  with 
a  promise  to  perform  a  special  ceremony  to  the  Bhuta. 

Mr.  Walhouse  informs  us  that  these  demons  have  shrines 
called  Bhuta-sthans,  sometimes  of  considerable  size,  but  far 
more  commonly  small  plain  structures,  four  or  five  yards  deep 
by  two  or  three  wide,  with  a  door  at  one  end,  covered  by  a 
portico  supported  on  two  pillars  with  a  thatched  roof,  and 
windowless.  Inside  the  Bhuta-sthan  a  number  of  brass  images 
roughly  made  in  human  shape,  or  resembling  animals 
such  as  pigs,  tigers,  fowls,  etc.,  arc  usually  found.  The 
Bhutas  themselves  are  commonly  represented  by  mere  rough 
stones.  These  rustic  fanes  are  thickly  scattered  over  the  face 
of  the  country — under  a  green-tree,  on  hill-sides,  down  in  hol- 
lows, in  jungles,  on  plains,  by  roadsides,  in  villages,  amid  rice- 
fields,  but  always  on  a  small  plot  of  waste  ground. 

Once  a  year  a  festival  called  Kolla  is  held.  The  festival 
always  takes  place  at  night,  and  about  nine  o'clock  all  the 
villagers  assemble  in  their  best  attire.  Then  the  Pujari,  or 
priest,  takes  the  Bhuta  sword  and  bell  in  his  hands,  and  whirls 
round  and  round,  imitating  the  supposed  gestures  of  the  demon. 
A  Dher  (Dhcda),  or  man  of  the  lowest  caste — at  other  times 
regarded  with  contempt,  but  now  advanced  to  the  foremost 


250  Demon-worship  and  Spirit-worship. 

post — comes  forward  naked,  except  round  the  loins,  his 
head  and  body  being  grotesquely  and  frightfully  besmeared 
with  white,  yellow,  and  red  paint.  Meanwhile  a  dozen  or 
more  tom-toms  are  beaten  with  a  continually  increasing 
din,  and  the  Dher  (Dheda)  presently  breaks  into  a  maniac 
dance,  capering,  bounding,  and  spinning  vehemently.  At 
length  he  stops  ;  he  is  full  of  the  demon,  and  stands  fixed  and 
rigid,  with  staring  eyes.  Presently  he  speaks,  or  rather  the 
demon  speaks  through  him,  in  loud,  hoarse,  commanding  tones, 
wholly  unlike  his  own,  or  indeed  any  natural  voice.  Various 
disputes  and  litigated  matters,  especially  when  evidence  and 
ordinary  means  of  adjustment  fail,  are  then  brought  forward 
and  submitted  to  the  decision  of  the  Bhuta,  and  his  award, 
pronounced  through  the  Dher,  is  generally,  though  not  al- 
ways, submitted  to.  After  this  the  demon  desires  to  have 
food,  and  the  Dher  eats  fried  rice  and  drinks  the  milk  of 
young  cocoa-nuts  ;  or,  if  the  demon  he  represents  be  one  of 
low  degree,  he  eats  animal  food  and  drinks  arrack. 

Among  the  demons  most  feared  in  Kanara  are  Kalkatti, 
Kallurti,  and  Panjurli. 

The  story  of  the  former  two  is  as  follows : — Kalkatti  and 
Kallurti  were  respectively  the  son  and  daughter  of  one 
Kalkuda,  a  sculptor,  who  must  have  lived  in  the  fifteenth 
century  of  our  era.  Kalkatti  was  a  mason,  and  one  day  found 
fault  with  his  father's  work,  which  so  distressed  him  that  he 
forthwith  killed  himself.  The  son  then  followed  his  father's 
trade,  and  succeeded  so  well  that  he  made  the  celebrated 
Jain  statue  at  Karakal.  After  completing  this  masterpiece 
he  wanted  to  go  elsewhere,  but  the  king  of  the  country 
forbad  him,  and  to  prevent  his  producing  any  similar  statue 
cut  off  his  left  hand  and  right  leg.  Notwithstanding  this 
mutilation  he  went  to  Yenur  and  made  a  still  larger  statue 
there.  His  sister  Kallurti  determined  to  join  him  at  Yenur. 
There  they  lived  together  for  some  time,  and  then  both 
committed  suicide.     It  was  thus  that  they  became  formidable 


Dcmon-ivorship  and  Spirit-worship.  2  5  i 

demons,  who  revenged  themselves  on  the  king  of  Karakal  by- 
burning  down  his  palace  and  town  and  annoying  people 
throughout  the  country  in  various  ways.  Their  story  is  a 
long  one,  and  the  books  which  recount  it  give  directions  for 
appeasing  their  anger. 

The  story  of  Panjurli  is  also  a  long  one.  He  is  a  terrible 
pig-faced  demon,  created  it  is  said  through  a  curse  of  Siva 
pronounced  on  some  young  pigs  which  had  laid  waste  his 
garden,  and  were  thereupon  collectively  transformed  into  a 
single  mischievous  demon. 

In  South  Kanara,  according  to  Mr.  Walhouse,  there  is  a 
noted  temple,  which  is  believed  to  be  the  residence  of  seven 
most  dreaded  demons.  Certain  devil-stones  are  sold  there  in 
which  the  powers  of  the  Bhutas  are  held  to  be  inherent. 
These  are  taken  home  and  used  by  the  purchasers  against 
their  enemies. 

I  add  an  extract  from  Bishop  Caldwell's  account  of  the 
Religion  of  the  Shanars,  a  tribe  in  the  South  of  India,  whose 
occupation  consists  in  cultivating  and  climbing  the  palmyra 
tree  for  the  sake  of  its  juice.  They  have  been  largely  con- 
verted to  Christianity,  and  chiefly  through  the  Bishop's 
devoted  labours  among  them. 

In  his  description  of  their  devil-worship  he  says  : — '  Every 
malady  however  trivial  is  supposed  by  the  more  superstitious 
to  be  inflicted  by  a  devil,  and  a  sacrifice  is  necessary  for 
its  removal ;  but  the  unusual  severity  or  continuance  of  any 
disease,  or  the  appearance  of  symptoms  which  arc  not  re- 
corded in  the  physician's  Sastra,  are  proofs  of  possession  of 
which  no  Shanar  can  entertain  any  doubt.  The  medical 
science  of  so  rude  a  people  not  being  very  extensive,  cases 
of  unquestionable  possession  are  of  frequent  occurrence. 
When  a  woman  is  heard  to  weep  and  laugh  alternately, 
without  any  adequate  cause,  or  shriek  and  look  wild  when 
no  snake  or  wild  beast  can  be  perceived,  what  Shanar  can 
suppose  anything  but  a  devil  to  be  the  cause  of  the  mischief.^ 


252  Demon-worship  and  Spirii-zuorship. 

The  native  doctor,  himself  a  Shanar,  is  sent  for  to  give  his 
advice.  He  brings  his  library  with  him  (he  cannot  read, 
but  it  is  all  in  his  memory),  his  complete  science  of  medicine 
in  one  hundred  stanzas,  as  revealed  by  the  sage  Agastya  to 
his  disciple  Pulastya  ;  but  in  vain  he  recites  his  prescriptions, 
in  vain  he  coins  hard  words.  As  no  description  of  hysterical 
complaints  is  contained  in  his  authorities,  what  can  he  do 
but  decide  that  a  devil  has  taken  possession  of  the  woman, 
and  recommend  that  a  sacrifice  be  offered  to  him  forthwith, 
with  a  cloth  and  a  white  fowl  to  the  doctor  r 

'Sometimes  the  friends  are  not  desirous  of  expelling  the 
evil  spirit  all  at  once,  but  send  for  music,  get  up  a  devil-dance, 
and  call  upon  the  demon  to  prophesy. 

'  If  they  desire  to  expel  the  devil,  there  is  no  lack  of 
moving  ceremonies  and  powerful  incantations,  each  of  which 
has  been  tried  and  found  successful  innumerable  times.  If 
the  devil  should  prove  an  obstinate  one  and  refuse  to  leave, 
charm  they  never  so  wisely,  his  retreat  may  generally  be 
hastened  by  the  vigorous  application  of  a  slipper  or  a  broom 
to  the  shoulders  of  the  possessed  person,  the  operator  taking 
care  at  the  same  time  to  use  the  most  scurrilous  language  he 
can  think  of.  After  a  time  the  demoniac  loses  his  downcast, 
sullen  look.  He  begins  to  get  angry  and  writhe  about  under 
the  slippering,  and  at  length  cries,  '  I  go,  I  go.'  Then  they 
ask  him  his  name,  and  why  he  came  there.  He  tells  them 
he  is  such  and  such  a  devil,  whom  they  have  neglected, 
and  he  wants  an  offering ;  or  he  calls  himself  by  the  name 
of  some  deceased  relative,  who,  as  they  now  learn  for  the 
first  time,  has  become  a  demon.  As  soon  as  the  demon 
consents  to  leave,  the  beating  ceases ;  and  not  unfrequently 
immediate  preparations  are  made  for  a  sacrifice,  as  a  com- 
pensation to  his  feelings  for  the  ignominy  of  the  exorcism. 
The  possessed  person  now  awakes  as  from  a  sleep,  and 
appears  to  have  no  knowledge  of  anything  that  has  hap- 
pened.' 


Devion-worsJiip  and  Spirit-worship.  253 

I  must  not  omit  to  note  one  or  two  other  facts  connected 
with  a  bcHef  in  demoniacal  influences  and  their  counteraction. 

Demons  or  evil  spirits  in  India  are  supposed  to  be  often 
the  cause  of  what  in  Europe  is  called  '  an  evil  eye,'  that  is, 
a  mysterious  power  of  fascinating,  bewitching,  or  inflicting 
some  injury  on  others  by  a  fixed  look,  gaze,  or  glance. 
Indeed,  a  look  of  admiration  from  friend  or  foe  is  believed 
to  be  fraught  with  great  danger  and  possibly  serious  calamity 
to  any  individual  who  is  the  object  of  it. 

Europeans  who  are  often  unaware  of  the  universal  pre- 
valence of  this  superstition  are  occasionally  the  innocent 
cause  of  great  distress  to  the  parents  of  Indian  children  by 
looking  at  them  approvingly  and  uttering  some  exclamation 
of  praise. 

A  story  was  told  me  with  the  utmost  gravity — as  if 
its  truth  was  beyond  all  dispute — of  a  person  who  was  born 
a  twin,  but  whose  twin  brother  was  a  spirit  who  constantly 
attended  him  and  gifted  him  with  various  preternatural 
faculties,  and  amongst  others  the  power  of  an  evil  eye. 
It  was  declared  to  be  a  fact,  that  whatever  this  person 
looked  at  with  admiration  instantly  faded  away  and  perished. 
Old  women  who  arc  believed  to  have  this  power  are  par- 
ticularly dreaded  and  shunned  as  dangerous  witches. 

Another  story  was  told  me  of  a  man  who  fell  in  love  with 
his  neighbour's  wife.  By  calling  in  demoniacal  aid  he  was 
able  to  fix  his  gaze  on  her,  and  after  successfully  bewitching 
her  to  cause  her  death.  Then  he  managed  to  get  possession 
of  a  hair  or  two  from  her  head.  These  he  handed  over  to 
a  well-known  sorcerer  at  Lahore,  who,  once  possessed  of  a 
portion  of  her  person,  had  no  difficulty  in  bringing  her  to 
life  again  by  his  incantations,  and  in  return  for  a  good  sum 
of  money  delivered  her  to  her  lover,  who  married  her. 

Some  sorcerers,  if  called  upon  to  get  rid  of  an  enemy, 
mould  a  human  efiigy  in  wax,  pronouncing  over  it  a  few 
mysterious  cabalistic  words.    The  waxen  figure  is  then  placed 


2  54  Dcmon-'worship  and  Spirit-worship. 

before  a  fire,  and,  as  it  melts,  brings  down  deadly  calamities 
on  the  head  of  the  person  to  be  destroyed.  Or,  if  a  human 
bone  from  a  cemetery  can  be  procured,  and  certain  Mantras 
recited  over  it,  very  fatal  results  will  ensue  (compare  p.  201). 

Many  charms  are  used  against  the  misfortunes  which  may 
at  any  time  be  brought  about  by  malicious  spirits  or  by  evil 
influences  connected  with  the  human  eye.  In  some  parts 
of  India  a  tiger's  claw  or  tooth  is  worn  on  the  neck  and  held  to 
be  very  efiicacious.  In  other  places  an  image  of  the  lihga^  is 
worn,  or  some  bright  ornament — such  as  a  string  of  white 
cowries — which  is  supposed  to  arrest  evil  glances,  or  divert 
them  from  the  person  wearing  such  a  necklace.  A  small 
iron  ring  is  also  commonly  carried  about  as  an  amulet.  It  is . 
particularly  effective  if  inlaid  with  pearls.  Frequently  a  lime 
is  carried  in  the  turban,  and  great  faith  is  reposed  in  its  pro- 
phylactic properties.  Or  again,  any  ornament  with  a  figure 
of  Hanuman  (p.  220)  engraved  on  it  makes  an  admirable 
charm  which  few  demons  can  withstand. 

In  some  districts — especially  in  the  South — I  have  often 
remarked  white  pots  with  black  marks  or  grotesque  objects 
covered  with  streaks  of  white  paint  placed  here  and  there 
in  the  fields,  and  intended  to  catch  the  eye  so  as  to  avert 
envious  glances  or  the  malignant  influences  of  demons 
from  the  growing  crops.  In  remote  villages  too  was  oc- 
casionally to  be  observed  an  apparatus  for  curing  cattle- 
disease  when  caused  (as  universally  believed  in  India)  by 
the  machinations  of  evil  demons.  At  the  entrance  to  the 
village  were  two  upright  posts  with  a  cord  stretched  between 
them,  on  which  were  hung  rude  models  of  ploughs  etc.,  and 
in  the  centre  dangled  a  large  pot-cover.  On  inquiry  I  found 
that  charms  resembling  physicians'  prescriptions  in  rather 
unreadable  hieroglyphics  were  written  on  this  cover,  and  all 
the  afflicted  cattle  driven  under  them.     The  power  of  such 

'  In  Italy  a  coral  ornament  with  a  finger  pointing  downwards  is  to 
this  day  sold  as  a  charm  against  the  evil  eye. 


Demon-worship  and  Spirii-woj's/u'p.  255 

charms  is  supposed  to  depend  a  good  deal  on  the  reputation 
of  the  sorcerers  employed  to  write  them,  and  every  village 
does  not  possess  such  men.  They  are  sometimes  sent  for 
from  great  distances,  and,  in  my  opinion,  centuries  must 
elapse  before  any  filtering  down  of  education  from  the  upper 
classes  will  avail  to  undermine  the  faith  of  the  simple  vil- 
lagers in  the  efficacy  of  a  pot-cover  inscribed  with  the  charms 
of  the  more  noted  sorcerers  ^ 

'  The  following  abridgment  of  an  article  on  Indian  '  Haunted  Bunga- 
lows,' in  a  recent  number  of  the  'Graphic'  (June  9,  1883),  will  be  inter- 
esting in  connexion  with  the  subject  of  the  chapter  here  concluded  : — 

'The  notion  of  Indian  houses  being  haunted  is,  on  first  thought,  rather 
ridiculous.  Nevertheless,  there  is  scarcely  a  station  in  Hindostan  which 
has  not  its  haunted  bungalow.  The  spirits  appear  to  the  appalled 
beholders  by  sunlight  as  well  as  by  night,  and  are  apparently  indifferent 
to  the  time  of  day.  A  curious  and  very  well  authenticated  instance  of 
this  disregard  of  the  hour  is  that  of  an  af/cj-noon  ghost,  which  punctually 
appears  at  sunset  in  a  certain  house  at  Madras. 

'  But  there  are  evil  and  beneficent  spirits  in  India.  There  is  a  well- 
known  haunted  house  in  one  of  the  stations  of  the  North  of  India, 
where  the  "house-ghost,"  if  we  may  so  call  him,  evinces  malicious  and 
malignant  idiosyncracies.  It  is  this  wretched  spirit's  mundane  amuse- 
ment to  try  and  upset  the  charpoy,  or  bed,  on  which  the  bewildered 
tenant  seeks  repose  ;  and  so  persistent  are  his  efforts  in  this  direction, 
that  they  have  been  compared  to  shocks  of  earthquake,  and  to  the 
explosions  of  subterraneous  mines.  People  laugh,  but  no  one  particu- 
larly cares  to  sleep  twice  in  that  haunted  bungalow. 

'Another  species  of  malignant  spirit  which  becomes  most  intimately 
associated  with  an  Indian  house  is  a  disease.  There  are  houses  in 
Indian  towns  and  stations  of  which  the  citizens  say  it  is  as  much  as 
any  man's  life  is  worth  to  enter  them.  C,  who  was  superior  to  super- 
stition, went  into  a  house  of  this  character,  just  to  show  the  absurdity  of 
believing  "in  such  rot,"  and  speedily  lost  his  wife  and  three  children. 
It  cannot  be  denied  that  the  mortality  in  some  Indian  bungalows  of  an 
unlucky  reputation  is  unaccountable. 

'  It  is  a  relief  to  turn  from  the  vagaries  of  evil  spirits  to  the  beneficence 
of  the  good. 

'In  England  one  seldom  hears  of  a  good  ghost,  or  of  a  ghost  who 
puts  himself  out  of  his  way  to  oblige  any  one  ;  but,  in  India,  ghosts  of 
this  cheerful  temperament  are  quite  common.  Sometimes  they  assume 
the  appearance  of  Europeans;  sometimes  that  of  natives.  These  ghosts 
have  done  the  living  no  end  of  good.  The  warnings  and  other  infor- 
mation they  have  imparted  have  been  endless.' 


256  Dcinon-ivorship  and  Spirit-woi^ship. 

I  also  add  a  statement  of  one  part  of  the  creed  of  American  Spiritual- 
ists in  the  present  day  (written  by  the  Rev.  C.  Ware,  and  quoted  in  the 
'Religio-Philosophical  Journal'),  as  offering  many  curious  analogies  to 
ideas  current  in  India  for  centuries  before  'Spiritualism'  was  ever  heard 
of  in  either  Europe  or  America  : — 

'  It  is  a  fact  that  myriads  of  disembodied  human  beings  are  living  in  a 
world  that  is  merely  the  duplicate  or  counterpart  of  the  earth,  a  realm 
as  closely  connected  with  the  earth's  atmosphere  as  the  atmosphere  is 
with  the  earth  itself;  all  above  it  and  below  it  being  links  of  one  endless 
chain.  This  is  what  we  mean  by  earth-bound  spirits  ;  they  are  so  earthly, 
their  nature  is  so  unrefined,  so  material  in  its  tendencies,  that  they  can- 
not rise  above  their  surroundings.  They  cannot  rise  to  those  spheres  of 
light,  and  love,  and  blessedness  ;  because  the  external  surroundings  of 
a  spirit  always  correspond  with  its  inward  condition  ;  they  must  remain 
in  that  first  sphere,  which  is  only  a  step  higher  than  the  earth,  until  they 
become  spiritually  developed. 

'Religious  professors  talk  about  going  on  the  wings  of  faith  to  the 
home  beyond  the  skies,  but,  unfortunately  for  them,  everything  in  the 
infinite  universe  is  determined  by  immutable  laws,  laws  which  cannot 
be  set  aside,  laws  which  are  self-operating ;  and  by  these  laws  is  the 
relative  position  of  every  individual  spirit  determined.  You  will  pass 
into  the  spirit-world  with  your  spiritual  body,  but  your  position  there 
will  be  determined  by  the  degree  of  refinement  which  characterizes  that 
same  spiritual  body.  The  tippler,  the  smoker,  the  glutton  and  the 
sensuaHst,  are,  whether  they  recognize  it  or  not,  constantly  defiling 
themselves  with  the  elements  which  will  keep  them  down  to  earth. 
It  is  such  habits  and  tendencies  that  make  spirits  "earth-bound."  If 
these  habits  are  not  conquered  and  overcome  here,  they  will  have  to 
be  there,  before  the  spirit  can  rise  to  association  with  the  pure  and 
the  holy. 

'  This  immense  realm,  then,  which  is  earth's  counterpart,  surrounds 
this  earth,  and  its  myriads  of  inhabitants  constantly  exert  an  influence 
upon  this  world  ;  and  this  is  a  solemn  thought,  when  you  remember 
that  here  dwell  millions  of  ignorant,  debased,  degraded  souls,  where 
they  remain  exerting  their  baneful  influence,  until  they  are  enlightened, 
purified  and  reformed. 

'  More  particularly  we  mean  by  earth-bound  spirits,  not  only  those 
who,  through  ignorance,  sensual  habits,  and  material  tendencies  are 
kept  down  by  their  own  specific  gravity,  but  also  those  who  are  fettered 
to  the  earth  by  wrong-doing,  crime  and  injustice  committed.  Thousands 
of  such  are  here  wandering,  full  of  remorse  ;  they  have  to  repent,  to  do 
their  best  to  repair  the  wrong  and  to  make  atonement,  before  they  can 
rise.' 


CHAPTER    X. 
Hero-zvorsJiip  and  Saint-worship. 

The  worship  of  great  men,  saints  and  sages,  who  have 
been  remarkable  for  the  possession  of  unusual  powers  or 
striking  qualities  of  any  kind,  is  a  phase  of  religious  deve- 
lopment which  perhaps  more  than  any  other  is  the  natural 
outcome  of  man's  devotional  instincts  and  proclivities.  In 
India  a  tendency  to  this  kind  of  worship  has  always  pre- 
vailed from  the  earliest  period.  Nascent  in  Vedic  times,  it 
speedily  grew  with  the  growth  of  a  belief  in  the  doctrine 
of  divine  incarnation  and  embodiment.  For  although  it  is 
true  that  Indian  philosophers  disparage  the  body  and  invent 
elaborate  schemes  for  getting  rid  of  all  corporeal  encum- 
brances, yet  it  is  equally  true  that  nowhere  in  the  world  has 
the  conception  of  God's  union  with  man,  and  of  His  enno- 
bling the  bodily  frame,  not  only  of  men  but  of  animals  and 
plants,  by  taking  it  upon  Himself,  struck  root  so  deeply  in 
the  popular  mind  as  in  India. 

We  know  indeed  that,  according  to  the  pantheistic  creed 
of  Brahmanism,  God  and  the  Universe  are  One.  His  pre- 
sence pervades  inanimate  as  well  as  animate  objects,  and 
every  human  being  is  a  manifestation  of  His  energy;  but 
He  is  believed  to  be  specially  present  in  all  great,  good,  and 
holy  men.  All  such  men  are  held  to  be  entitled  to  worship 
at  the  hands  of  their  fellow-creatures,  in  virtue  of  their  being 
embodiments  in  various  degrees  of  portions  of  His  essence. 
The  homage  they  receive  may  not  alwa)-s  amount  to  actual 

s 


258  Hero-worship  and  Saint-zcorship. 

worship   during   life,  but  after  their  decease   their  claim  to 
a   position    in  the   celestial   hierarchy  is   pretty  sure   to   be 
fully  recognized  ;   and   if  their  lives   have  been   marked  by 
any  extraordinary  or  miraculous  occurrences,  they  soon  be- 
come objects  of  general  adoration.     It  is  not  merely  that  a 
niche  is  allotted  to  them  among  the  countless  gods  of  the 
Hindu    Pantheon    (popularly   330,000,000    in   number).      A 
shrine  is  set  up  and  dedicated  to  their  deified  spirits  upon 
earth,  and  generally  in    the  locality  where   they  were   best 
known.     There  they  are  supposed  to  be  objectively  present — 
not  indeed  visibly  to  men,  and   not  always  represented  by 
visible  images  or  symbols — but  as  ethereal  beings  possessed 
of  ethereal  frames  which  need  the  aroma  or  essence  of  food 
for  their   support  (see  p.  12).      The  idea  seems  to  be  that 
the  localizing  of  a  deified  or  canonized  spirit  involves  the 
duty  of  its  maintenance.     Hence  oblations  are  daily  offered, 
and  if  by  a  happy  accident  some  miraculous  event,  such  as 
the  unexpected  recovery  of  a  sick  man,  occurs  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood, the  celebrity  of  the  new  god  rapidly  rises,  till  he 
takes    rank  as  a  first-class   divinity,  and  his   sanctuary  be- 
comes a  focus  to  which  tens   of  thousands   of  enthusiastic 
devotees  annually  converge. 

There  seems  indeed  to  be  no  limit  to  this  kind  of  deifi- 
cation in  India. 

Volumes  might  be  written  in  describing  instances  that 
have  occurred  and  are  constantly  occurring  in  all  parts  of 
the  country.  And  it  is  remarkable  that  the  rank  or  import- 
ance to  which  a  canonized  or  deified  human  being  may 
attain  in  the  world  of  spirits  does  not  always  depend,  as  a 
matter  of  course,  on  the  estimation  in  which  he  was  held, 
or  even  on  the  measure  of  divinity  attributed  to  him  while 
on  the  earth.  Any  man  of  the  lowest  rank,  whose  influence 
during  life  was  perhaps  quite  insignificant,  may  be  elevated 
to  the  highest  pinnacle  of  honour  when  severed  from  ter- 
restrial   tics,    if    his    relatives    can    show    that    his    career 


Hcro-iuors/iip  and  Saini-zuors/iip.  259 

was  marked  by  any  extraordinary  act  of  self-sacrifice  or 
heroism,  or  so-called  miracle.  Nevertheless,  it  is  important 
to  note  that  the  idea  of  divinity  seems  to  be  specially  asso- 
ciated with  five  classes  of  living  persons — kings,  warriors, 
Brahmans,  saints,  and  sages — and  that  these  enjoy  a  kind 
of  a-priori  claim  to  subsequent  apotheosis. 

And  first  in  regard  to  kings  —  every  king  is  regarded 
as  little  short  of  a  present  god.  In  Manu's  law-book  a  king 
is  said  to  be  created  by  drawing  eternal  particles  from  the 
essence  of  the  eight  guardian  deities  (VII.  4).  Again,  he  says, 
'  A  king,  even  though  a  mere  child,  must  not  be  treated 
with  contempt,  as  if  he  were  a  mortal;  he  is  a  great  divinity 
in  human  shape '  (VII.  8).  In  proof  of  the  hold  which  these 
ideas  still  have  on  the  people  of  India,  I  may  mention  that, 
according  to  a  statement  in  a  recent  number  of  a  native 
newspaper,  there  is  now  a  sect  of  persons  in  Orissa  who 
worship  the  Queen  of  England  as  their  chief  divinity. 

The  transition  from  the  worship  of  kings  to  that  of  mili- 
tary heroes  and  conquerors  is  of  course  easy.  Great  war- 
riors have  always  in  India  commanded  a  large  share  of 
popular  homage,  though  their  full  apotheosis  has  generally 
been  deferred  until  after  death  and  until  their  human  origin 
has  become  obscured  in  the  mists  of  tradition.  The  most 
noteworthy  instances  of  such  deification  have  been  Rama 
and  Krishna,  both  of  whom,  notwithstanding  their  human 
parentage  and  human  career,  were  ultimately \  as  we  have 
seen  (pp.  110-114),  exalted  by  their  worshippers  to  the  first 
rank  among  Vishnu's  incarnations. 

And,  to  this  day,  all  living  persons  remarkable  for  great  per- 
sonal valour  and  strength,  or  for  supposed  miraculous  powers, 
run  the  risk — like  Paul  and  Barnabas  at  Lystra — of  being 
converted  into  gods.  Even  any  unusual  deformity  or  strange 
eccentricity  may  be  an  evidence  of  divinity. 

^  In  the  Maha-bharata  the  divinity  of  Krishna  is  occasionally  disputed, 
as  by  Sisu-pala  and  others. 

S  2 


26o  Hero-icorship  and  Saint-iuorship. 

The  story  has  often  been  told  of  a  number  of  Hindus  in 
the  Panjab  who  formed  themselves  into  a  sect  of  Nikkal 
Sen  worshippers.  The  explanation  of  this  was,  that  General 
Nicholson  was  a  soldier  of  such  unexampled  bravery  and  hero- 
ism, that  neither  argument  nor  force  could  prevent  his  native 
admirers  from  worshipping  him.  'This  man,'  they  said,  'is 
the  great  power  of  God.'  He  endeavoured  by  punishing 
them  to  put  a  stop  to  the  absurdity,  but  this  only  filled  them 
with  greater  awe,  and  made  them  persist  in  their  puja  with 
more  obstinate  determination. 

Nor  is  the  object  of  such  adoration  always  really  worthy 
of  honour,  or  even  decently  respectable.  It  is  well  known 
that  a  certain  tribe  in  India  worship  a  notorious  robber, 
whose  deeds  merit  nothing  but  general  execration.  Perhaps, 
however,  a  sufficient  explanation  of  this  circumstance  may 
be  found  in  the  fact  that  the  tribe  in  question  is  itself 
addicted  to  occasional  plundering  on  its  own  account. 

It  was  on  a  similar  principle  that  the  Thugs  worshipped 
Kali  as  goddess  of  destruction,  and  strangled  their  victims 
in  her  honour. 

Another  robber,  who  was  hung  at  Trichinopoly,  became 
so  popular  as  a  demon  that  children  were  constantly  named 
after  him. 

Turning  next  to  Brahmans,  we  find  it  affirmed  by  Manu 
that  a  'Brahman  is  a  mighty  god,  a  supreme  divinity, 
whether  he  be  learned  or  unlearned,  and  even  if  employed 
in  inferior  occupations'  (IX.  317,  319).  'From  his  birth 
alone  a  Brahman  is  regarded  as  a  divinity  even  by  the  gods' 
(XI.  84). 

With  regard  to  a  Brahman  who  is  also  a  Guru  or  teacher, 
his  person  is  still  more  sacred,  and  he  is  everywhere  the 
object  of  divine  honours  (see  p.  117).  'The  teacher  (Guru) 
is  God,  and  the  teacher  is  a  refuge  (gati).  If  Siva  be  angry 
the  teacher  becomes  a  protector,  but  there  is  no  other  refuge 
if  the  teacher  be  offended.     Any  one  who  worships  another 


Hero-worsJiip  and  Saint-iuorship.  261 

god  or  goddess  when  his  preceptor  is  at  hand  incurs  terrible 
perdition.  The  preceptor  alone  is  the  divine  power,  whether 
lie  be  learned  or  unlearned.  His  ways  may  be  good  or 
bad,  but  he  is  the  only  safe  guide'  (Tantra-sara,  p.  i). 

In  illustration  of  this  I  may  mention^  that  I  was  admitted 
as  a  great  favour  to  a  sort  of  religious  camp-meeting  which 
took  place  at  one  of  the  most  sacred  places  in  all  India — 
the  confluence  of  the  Ganges  and  the  Jumna.  There  I  found 
that  a  celebrated  preacher  was  addressing  a  congregation  of 
about  one  hundred  persons,  who  hung  upon  his  lips  in  rapt 
attention.  The  subject  of  the  sermon,  which  was  delivered 
with  great  eloquence,  was  the  condescension  of  Krishna  in 
becoming  first  a  child  and  then  a  man  for  the  benefit  of  the 
human  race.  No  sooner  was  the  sermon  over  than  certain 
persons  in  the  audience  took  lighted  lamps,  and  standing  up 
before  the  preacher,  waved  them  before  him  in  homage  as 
before  the  chief  deity  of  the  placed 

Perhaps  the  most  readily  conceded  of  all  claims  to  apo- 
theosis is  that  of  the  saint  or  holy  sage  who  has  become 
a  SannyasT — that  is  to  say,  has  renounced  all  family  ties, 
and  lives  a  life  of  asceticism,  self-denial,  and  austerity. 
When  such  a  man  dies  in  India,  his  body  is  not  burnt  but 
buried,  because  in  fact  he  is  not  supposed  to  die  at  all. 
He  is  believed  to  lie  in  a  kind  of  trance,  called  Samadhi  ; 
sanctity  exhales  from  his  body,  and  his  tomb— popularly 
called  a  Samadh — often  becomes  a  noted  place  of  pilgrimage, 
resorted  to  by  myriads  from  all  parts  of  India. 

Very  similar  is  the  adoration  paid  to  the  faithful  wife, 
commonly  called  Suttee  (  =  Sanskrit  Satt),  who  in  former 
days  burnt  herself  on  her  husband's  funeral  pile.  Monu- 
ments are  erected  over  her  ashes,  and  within  the  shrine  is 

'  I  witnessed  a  very  similar  proceeding  at  Cologne  Cathedral  the 
other  day.  During  the  mass,  and  after  waving  the  censer  full  of  incense 
before  the  altar,  one  of  the  officiating  attendants  waved  it  before  two 
chief-priests  who  were  present,  in  token  I  presume  of  homage. 


262  Hero-tvorship  and  Saint-worship. 

often   a   representation   of  her   foot-prints,   which   are   wor- 
shipped with  the  greatest  veneration. 

Of  course  jealousies  and  rivalries  occasionally  spring  up 
between  the  adherents  and  admirers  of  various  departed 
saints  or  heroes,  especially  if  much  expense  has  been  in- 
curred in  erecting  shrines  and  monuments  in  the  hope  of 
attracting  pilgrims  to  particular  localities.  Nor  is  there  any 
dominant  ecclesiastical  authority  in  India  capable  of  arbi- 
trating between  competing  claims  or  fixing  the  relative  rank 
of  fresh  accessions  to  the  celestial  sphere. 

It  seems  that  such  things  are  managed  better  in  China. 
In  that  country,  according  to  Sir  A.  Lyall,  '  The  Emperor 
— himself  a  sacred  and  semi-divine  personage  —  seems  to 
have  gradually  acquired  something  like  a  monopoly  of  dei- 
fication, which  he  uses  as  a  constitutional  prerogative,  like 
the  right  of  creating  peers.'  In  fact,  '  The  government  not 
only  bestows  on  deceased  persons  its  marks  of  posthumous 
approbation  and  rank  in  the  State  Heaven  ;  it  also  deco- 
rates them  with  titles.'  The  Gazette  of  May,  1878,  contains 
a  decree  conferring  a  great  title  upon  the  dragon  spirit 
of  Han  Tan  Hien,  in  whose  temple  is  the  well  in  which 
the  iron  tablet  is  deposited.  '  This  spirit  has  from  time  to 
time  manifested  itself  in  answer  to  prayer,  and  has  been 
repeatedly  invested  with  titles  of  honour.  In  consequence 
of  this  year's  drought  prayers  were  again  offered  up,  and 
the  provinces  (mentioned)  have  been  visited  with  sufficient 
rain.  Our  gratitude  is  indeed  profound,  and  we  ordain  that 
the  Dragon  Spirit  shall  be  invested  with  the  additional  title 
of  the  Dragon  Spirit  of  the  Sacred  Well.'  Another  spirit 
had  already  obtained  the  title  of  '  Moisture-diffusing,  bene- 
ficial-aid-afifording,  universal-support-vouchsafing-Prince,'  and 
received  additional  titles  in  a  Gazette  of  1877  \ 

It   might    have   been   conjectured   that   in   India  a  crafty 


1  ( 


Asiatic  Studies,'  by  Sir  A.  Lyall  (John  Murray),  pp.  138,  139. 


Ho'O-ii'orsJiip  and  Saint-zvorship.  26 


J 


priesthood  would  have  taken  care  to  lay  its  hands  on  a 
prerogative  so  vahiable  and  far-reaching-  in  its  efifects  as  that 
thus  exercised  by  the  Chinese  government.  Ikit  we  do  not 
find  that  tlie  Brfdimans  have  ever  claimed  the  exclusive 
privilege  of  converting  men  into  gods,  or  even  of  conferring 
honorary  degrees  and  titles  of  distinction  on  departed 
spirits.  The  origin  of  the  popularity  of  many  celebrated 
shrines  is  lost  in  remote  antiquity,  and  without  doubt  it  has 
often  been  due  to  a  happy  hit  on  the  part  of  the  relatives 
of  some  well-known  character,  who  have  erected  a  tomb 
over  his  ashes  or  a  monument  to  his  memory  on  simple 
speculation,  and  then  sent  agents  everywhere  to  advertise 
its  virtues  or  spread  reports  of  great  miracles  worked  in  the 
neighbourhood. 

Such  shrines  may  often  bring  in  a  large  revenue  to  their 
proprietors,  and  may  even  be  more  frequented  than  those 
of  Vishnu's  two  most  celebrated  incarnations,  Krishna  and 
Rama ;  but  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  in  almost  every 
case  where  a  local  hero  or  remarkable  person  of  any  kind 
has  attained  to  deification,  he  ends  by  being  worshipped 
as  a  form  of  either  Vishnu  or  Siva. 

To  give  a  few  instances  of  local  deifications  which  fell 
under  my  own  observation  in  India : — It  is  well  known  that 
at  Pandharpur  in  the  Deccan  (on  the  Bhima,  about  112  miles 
south-east  of  Poona)  and  in  the  surrounding  districts  the 
favourite  god  is  Vithoba  (also  called  Viththal).  Very  little  is 
known  of  his  origin,  but  he  is  said  to  have  been  a  Brfdiman 
named  Pundarlka  (sometimes  corrupted  into  Pundallka),  who 
gained  a  great  reputation  for  filial  piety,  and  so  pleased 
Vishnu  that  the  god,  in  recognition  of  his  merits,  infused  into 
him  a  large  portion  of  his  own  essence.  Vithoba  is  now  every- 
where regarded  as  a  form  of  Krishna.  Idols  of  him  arc  com- 
mon,  and  have  this  peculiarity,  that  he  is  represented  standing 
on  a  brick  (vlt  for  It)  with  his  arms  akimbo,  the  hands  resting 
on  the  hips.     A  legend  has  been  framed  to  account  for  this 


264  Hero-worship  and  Saint-ivorship. 

position.  Probably  it  was  a  favourite  attitude  of  the  man 
before  his  deification  \  Some  of  his  images  have  the  impres- 
sion of  a  kick  given  by  the  sage  Bhrigu's  foot  clearly  marked 
on  the  breast  (see  p.  45). 

Pandharpur  is  one  of  the  most  sacred  places  in  the  Maratha 
country,  and  vast  numbers  of  pilgrims  flock  to  the  shrine  of 
Vithoba  twice  a  year — once  in  the  month  Ashadha,  and 
once  again  in  Karttika.  The  place  was  probably  at  one 
time  a  stronghold  of  the  Buddhists.  Indeed  it  was  stated 
to  me,  as  one  reason  for  the  great  popularity  of  Vithoba, 
that  his  principal  idol  took  the  place  of  an  image  of  the 
Buddha,  and  so  became  acceptable  to  all  castes.  Others 
believe  it  to  have  been  a  Jaina  idol.  There  is  no  doubt  that 
caste  is  still  to  a  great  extent  ignored  by  the  worshippers 
of  Vithoba  at  times  of  pilgrimage.  It  is  remarkable,  too, 
that  worshippers  make  him  no  offerings,  nor  ask  the  god  for 
special  benefits.  He  is  supposed  to  love  all  mankind,  and 
require  nothing  but  love  in  return  ;  so  people  simply  praise 
him,  and  sometimes  even  embrace  his  image.  The  idol, 
w'hich  is  said  to  be  svayambhu  (p.  69),  is  dressed  every  day 
in  jewelled  dresses,  and  hymns  are  sung  before  it.  It  is 
supposed  to  change  its  appearance  and  look  like  a  chiM  in 
the  morning,  a  man  at  noon,  and  an  old  man  in  the  evening. 
Doubtless  Vithoba  owes  much  of  his  celebrity  to  the  songs 
of  the  Maratha  national  poet  Tuka-rama.  A  common  de- 
votional service  among  the  pilgrims  is  a  Klrtana  or  'song 
of  praise'  extracted  from  his  poems.  Hundreds  of  men  and 
women  sit  in  a  circle  on  the  ground,  while  behind  the  sitters 
arc  many  standing.  The  principal  singers  form  a  kind  of 
inner  semicircle.  The  leader  thereupon  gives  out  a  verse, 
such  as  the  following  :  '  All  earthly  things  are  vanity ;  there- 
fore draw  thy  heart  away  and  elevate  it  to  Vithoba.'    These 

'  One  of  Tuka's  Abhaiigas  begins,  *  Beautiful  is  that  object,  upright  on 
the  brick,  resting  his  hands  on  his  loins.'  1  cannot  agree  in  thinking  it 
possible  that  the  name  Vithoba  may  be  derived  from  vlt  '  a  brick,'  and 
nd/ia  •  upright.' 


Hero-zvorship  and  Sa'nit-worsJiip.  265 

words  are  caught  up  by  the  other  performers,  and  then 
chanted  enthusiastically  by  all  with  a  vigorous  accompani- 
ment of  lutes  (vinas),  cymbals^  and  drums.  Sometimes  a 
discourse  on  the  vanity  of  human  life  follows  the  singing. 

Even  a  woman  may  be  the  preacher.  When  Dr.  Murray 
Mitchell  visited  Pandharpur  a  widow  named  Salu-bfiT  ad- 
dressed a  large  audience,  commencing  her  discourse  by  utter- 
ing the  names  Rama,  Krishna,  Hari,  which  were  caught  up  by 
her  hearers  in  a  prolonged  shout(Indian  Antiquary,  June  1882). 

A  ceremony  is  also  performed  which  consists  in  breaking 
a  large  black  clay-vessel  fastened  on  a  tree.  The  contents, 
consisting  of  curdled  milk  and  grain,  fall  on  the  ground  and 
are  eagerly  snatched  up  by  the  struggling  crowd. 

The  celebrated  national  poet  of  the  Marathas,  Tuka-rama, 
was  a  Sudra  of  the  trading  caste  who  lived  in  the  days  of 
Siva-jl,  about  250  }'ears  ago,  at  Dehu  near  Poona,  and  wrote 
about  5,oco  hymns.  Though  he  devoted  his  genius  to  the 
extolling  of  Vithoba  as  a  form  of  God,  he  is  himself  also  an 
object  of  adoration,  and  is  believed  to  have  worked  many 
miracles — amongst  others  ascending  in  bodily  shape  to  heaven 
in  Vishnu's  car.  Dehu  is  now  a  much-frequented  place  of 
pilgrimage,  especially  at  an  annual  festival  when  the  poet's 
ascension  is  commemorated.  People  of  all  castes  who  worship 
at  this  place  and  at  Pandharpur  are  called  Varkarl.  The  follow- 
ing is  a  specimen  of  the  religious  sentiments  in  Tuka-rama's 
songs  translated  by  Sir  A.  Grant : — 

Sing  the  song  with  earnestness,  making  pure  the  heart  ; 
If  you  would  attain  God,  then  this  is  an  easy  way: — 
Make  your  heart  lowly,  touch  the  feet  of  Saints, 
Of  others  do  not  hear  the  good  or  bad  qualities. 
Tuka  says  :  Be  it  much  or  little,  do  good  to  others  \ 

'  A  musician  performed  before  me  on  the  Sitar  at  Poona,  and  sang  a 
song  from  Tuka-rama,  which  may  be  thus  translated  :  '  O  God,  grant  this 
boon  that  I  may  never  forget  Thee,  and  that  I  may  sing  Thy  praise 
with  zest.  This  is  all  the  wealth  I  ask.  I  desire  not  extinction,  nor 
riches.  I  want  not  emancipation  from  existence.  1  pray  that  I  may 
live  to  praise  Thee,  and  enjoy  the  company  of  the  good.' 


266  Hero-wo7^ship  and  Saint-worship. 

Another  deification,  Khando-ba  (also  called  Khande-Rao), 
was  a  personage  who  lived  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  hill 
Jejurl  (  =  Sanskrit  Jayddri),  thirty  miles  from  Poona.  He 
is  probably  a  deification  of  some  powerful  Raja  or  aboriginal 
chieftain  who  made  himself  useful  to  the  Brahmans.  He  is 
now  regarded  as  an  incarnation  of  Siva  in  his  form  Mallari. 
The  legend  is  that  the  god  Siva  descended  in  this  form  to 
destroy  a  powerful  demon  named  Mallasura,  who  lived  on  the 
hill  and  was  a  terror  to  the  neighbourhood.  Parvatl  descended 
at  the  same  time  to  become  Khando-ba's  wife.  His  worship  is 
very  popular  among  the  Kolis  and  people  of  low  caste  in  the 
Maratha  country.  I  was  informed  that  he  is  the  family  god 
of  Holkar,  who  is  of  the  shepherd  caste.  Sheep  are  sacrificed 
at  the  principal  temple  on  the  Jejurl  hill,  where  there  is  an 
image  of  the  Lifiga  ;  and  a  bad  custom  prevails  of  dedicating 
young  girls  to  the  god's  service.  They  are  called  Muralis 
(or  MurlTs),  and  although  nominally  wives  of  the  god,  are 
simply  prostitutes.  Khando-ba  is  sometimes  represented 
with  his  wife  on  horseback  attended  by  a  dog  ^ 

As  to  another  local  deification  called  Jnanesvara  (pro- 
nounced in  Marathi  Dnyanesvara  and  popularly  Diiyano-ba), 
he  was  a  learned  Brahman^  living  at  a  place  called  Alandi, 
twelve  miles  from  Poona,  who  wrote  a  commentary  in  verse 
on  the  Bhagavad-glta  called  Jilanesvari.  Towards  the  end  of 
his  life  he  became  a  SannyasI,  and  on  dying,  or  appearing 
to  die,  his  body  was,  as  usual,  not  burnt,  but  buried,  and  a 
tomb  (Samadh)  erected  over  it.  The  belief,  of  course,  is 
that  he  merely  lies  in  a  trance,  and  that  he  occasionally 
shows  himself  alive  to  his  worshippers.  He  is  held  to  have 
been  an  incarnation  of  Vishnu,  and  is  said  to  have  given 
evidence  of  his  divinity  while  he  lived  as  a  Brahman  on  the 
earth  by  one  or  two  notable  miracles.  For  example,  he  one 
day  caused  a  buffalo  to  speak  and  recite  a  hymn  from  the 

^  A  sect  existed  in  Saiikara's  time  who  worshipped  Mallari  as  'lord  of 
dogs'  (see  Sankara-vijaya,  chap.  29).   So  Rudra  is  lord  of  dogs  (see  p.  11). 


Her 0-ivor ship  and  Saint-worsJiip,  267 

•Veda.  On  another  occasion,  he  commanded  a  wall  on  which 
he  was  sitting  to  transport  him  for  a  mile  into  the  presence 
of  a  holy  person  who  wished  to  see  him.  The  wall  obeyed, 
and  remains  to  this  day  at  some  distance  from  the  town,  but 
the  old  mouldering  erection  seemed  likely  to  disappear  under 
the  plundering  hands  of  relic-seekers,  and  the  piety  of  the 
inhabitants  has  therefore  recently  cased  it  with  stone.  It  is 
still,  however,  greatly  venerated,  and  a  hole  has  been  made  in 
the  stone-casing  to  enable  pilgrims  to  express  their  faith  by 
touching  the  original  structure.  Indeed,  in  the  belief  of  the 
generality  of  Hindus,  such  miracles  are  of  common  occur- 
rence all  over  India.  No  one  is  troubled  by  any  misgivings 
as  to  their  improbability,  or  supposes  for  a  moment  that  a 
saint  of  any  pretensions  could  be  incapable  of  working  them. 

Again,  I  found  that  in  certain  localities  in  the  Maratha 
country  a  holy  Brahman,  named  Dattatreya  (vulgarly 
Dattatre),  who  lived  about  the  tenth  century  of  our  era,  is 
worshipped  as  an  incarnation  of  all  three  gods,  Brahma, 
Vishnu,  and  Siva^  During  his  lifetime  he  was  greatly  re- 
vered for  his  wisdom,  self-mortification,  and  asceticism,  and 
before  his  death  became  a  Sannyasi.  His  shrines  are  scat- 
tered here  and  there  in  the  districts  surrounding  Poona. 
I  visited  a  remarkable  one  at  Wai  —  a  sacred  town  on  the 
Krishna  (Kistna)  near  Sattara— where  the  image  of  Datta- 
treya has  three  heads,  to  represent  the  Hindu  triad.  Two 
or  three  worshippers  of  the  male  sex  appeared  to  be  en- 
gaged in  earnest  devotion  before  this  idol. 

Another  deification  is  that  of  Vyahkatesa  (Vchkatesa)  or 
Tri-pati  (for  Sanskrit  Sri-pati),  a  name  given  to  Vishnu  or 
Krishna  when  he  became  incarnate  in  a  man  popularly 
called  Bala-jT.  Little  is  known  about  this  man,  except 
that   he  was   a  person   remarkable  for  many  extraordinary 

^  There  is  a  strange  legend  connected  with  Dattatreya  current  in  some 
parts  of  India.  Brahma,  Vishnu,  and  Siva  are  said  to  have  visited  the 
wife  of  a  holy  man  and  tried  to  seduce  her,  but  without  success. 


268  Hero-worship  and  Saint-worship. 

qualities,  and  that  he  lived  in  the  neighbourhood  of  a 
hill  called  Seshadri  in  the  Madras  presidency.  It  is  cer- 
tain that  a  celebrated  temple  dedicated  to  him  has  been 
erected  at  that  place — usually  called  the  Hill  of  Tri-pati  or 
Vyankata  (Venkata) — and  that  pilgrimages  arc  made  to  it 
from  every  part  of  the  country.  It  is  especially  resorted  to 
for  religious  shaving. 

Of  more  recent  deifications  and  canonizations  a  few  ex- 
amples may  be  given.  I  have  already  described  how  the 
followers  of  a  Brahman  named  Sahajananda  or  Svami- 
Narayana,  who  flourished  about  the  beginning  of  the  present 
century^  regard  him  as  a  portion  of  Vishnu  (see  p.  153)- 

The  same  may  be  said  of  the  followers  of  the  cotton- 
bleacher  Dadu,  who  lived  in  less  recent  times  (see  p.  178). 

Then  Mira-bal,  a  princess  who  lived  in  the  time  of  Akbar, 
and  married  the  Rana  of  Udayapur  (Udaipur),  is  worshipped 
by  a  sect,  who  believe  that  she  disappeared  one  day  into  her 
tutelary  idol— an  image  of  Krishna — which  opened  to  receive 
her  and  protect  her  from  persecution.  She  is  the  authoress 
of  some  religious  odes. 

Again,  Ram-singh,  the  son  of  a  carpenter,  was  a  man  who 
founded  a  small  sect  of  Sikhs  called  Kukas,  which  had  to  be 
repressed  not  long  since  with  an  iron  hand,  because  in  their 
fanaticism  they  took  to  murdering  the  butchers  who  killed  oxen 
for  food.  His  followers  scarcely  worshipped  him  as  a  god,  yet 
they  fully  believed  in  his  power  of  working  miracles.  (Com- 
pare the  last  paragraph  at  p.  172  of  this  volume.) 

Another  founder  of  a  sect  —  Ram-das  —  was  the  Guru  of 
Siva-jT.  His  followers,  who  are  numerous  in  the  Maratha 
country,  adore  him  in  connexion  with  the  worship  of  the 
great  Rama,  and  therefore  also  worship  Hanuman.  His 
tomb  or  Samadh  is  at  Parali,  near  Sattara. 

I  may  add,  that  in  a  village  of  Gujarat  called.  Sarsa  there 
lives  (or  did  live  in  1H78)  a  man  named  Kubera.  This  man 
is   of  the  Koli  caste.     He  has   been    a  teacher  of  religion 


Hero-ii'orship  and  Saint-zvoi'sJiip.  269 

for  more  than  thirty-five  ycars^  and  gives  himself  out  to  be 
a  portion  of  the  god  Krishna.  He  has  gathered  around 
him  at  least  20,000  disciples,  and  formed  them  into  a  re- 
ligious society  who  call  themselves  Hari-jana.  They  arc 
also  called  Kuber-bhaktas.  They  worship  or  worshipped 
Kubera  their  founder,  as  a  living  incarnation,  in  his  own 
dwelling,  but  they  have  temples  or  meeting-houses  in  many 
villages,  and  send  missionaries  to  all  parts  of  Gujarat.  Like 
the  Svami-Narayana  sect,  they  are  divided  into  Sadhus  and 
Grihasthas,  or  Clergy  and  Laity  (see  p.  150).  At  one  of 
their  temples  (Mandirs)  in  the  town  of  Nariad,  two  of 
their  clergy  minister  daily.  Several  members  of  the  sect 
attend  and  listen  to  expositions  of  their  sacred  books,  but 
worship  no  idols. 

Another  considerable  temple  which  I  saw  at  Nariad  is 
dedicated  to  a  holy  man  named  Santa-Ram  (probably  =Santa- 
rama,  or  perhaps  Santosha-rama).  His  body  is  buried  in  the 
precincts  of  the  temple,  and  I  observed  that  the  courtyard 
around  was  kept  scrupulously  clean.  He  has  no  very  large 
number  of  disciples,  but  they  appeared  to  be  very  devoted  in 
their  homage. 

I  heard  of  another  man  in  Gujarat,  named  Hari-Krishna, 
who  not  ver}"-  long  ago  proclaimed  himself  to  be  a  mani- 
festation of  the  Supreme  Being,  and  attracted  a  few  disciples ; 
but  he  is  now  dead,  and  the  sect  has  also  I  believe  died  out. 

Again,  when  I  was  at  Kaira  I  visited  a  small  shrine,  dedi- 
cated to  a  Sadhu  or  holy  man  whose  name  I  understood  to 
be  Parinama.  There  was  no  image,  but  only  the  empty  seat 
which  he  had  once  occupied  as  a  religious  teacher,  with  some 
of  the  vestments  which  he  wore  at  the  time  of  his  decease. 
Yet  the  place  was  regarded  as  so  sacred  that  I  was  not 
allowed  to  enter  without  taking  off  my  shoes. 

I  believe  the  followers  of  this  man  are  gradually  decreasing, 
and  will  ultimately  disappear.  In  fact,  it  ought  to  be  noted 
that  the   most  astounding  exploits  of  great  heroes  and  the 


2  70  Hcro-zvorship  a7td  Saint-worskip. 

most  startling  miracles  of  eminent  saints  are  liable  to  be 
eclipsed  by  still  greater  wonders  wrought  by  still  greater 
heroes  and  saints  who  are  always  appearing  on  the  scene  and 
eno-rossine   the   attention    of  an    ignorant   and   superstitious 

multitude. 

In  no  other  way  can  we  account  for  the  little  honour  now 
paid  to  such  an  eminent  hero  as  Bala-rama,  'the  strong 
Rama,'  who  was  an  elder  brother  of  Krishna  and  brought  up 
with  him  (see  p.  iia)^ 

Again,  as  to  the  well-known  Parasu-rama,  or  Rama  with  the 
axe — he  was  a  Brahman  who  achieved  so  great  a  reputation 
in  conflicts  with  the  Kshatriyas  that  his  admirers  converted 
him  into  one  of  Vishnu's  ten  principal  incarnations  (see 
p.  no).  Yet  he  is  little  worshipped  except  in  some  parts  of 
the  western  coast  of  India.  The  story  of  his  clearing  the 
earth  twenty-one  times  of  the  Kshatriya  race  and  of  his  ulti- 
mate defeat  by  his  rival  the  great  Rama-candra,  who  was  the 
Kshatriya  incarnation  of  Vishnu  and  also  one  of  the  god's  ten 
principal  descents,  proves  that  the  axe-Rama  was  at  one  time 
a  man  of  pre-eminent  valour  and  renown  (see  p.  no,  and 
Maha-bharata  Vana-p.  11071;  Santi-p.  1707;  Bhagavata- 
purana,  book  IX).  Tradition  ascribes  the  colonizing  of  the 
Kohkan — called  Parasu-rama-kshetra — and  the  creation  of 
the  whole  country  of  Malabar  (Kerala)  to  Parasu-rama. 

He  must  have  been  a  very  extraordinary  personage,  for  he 
is  believed  to  have  compelled  the  ocean  to  retire  for  the 
formation  of  the  Malabar  coast,  and  to  have  caused  vast 
fissures  in  the  Western  Ghats  and  other  mountains  by  blows 
of  his  axe  2.  At  the  same  time  he  is  said  to  have  reared 
great  stone  cairns  on  the  Travahkor  mountains,  and  to  have 
scattered  small  spangle-like  gold  coins  everywhere  on  the  soil. 

*  Both  Bala-rama  and  Krishna  refused  to  take  any  part  as  warriors  in 
the  great  war  between  the  Pan(lava  and  Kaurava  princes. 

*  Unusual  formations  in  hills  and  other  curious  physical  phenomena 
are  often  attributed  to  Parasu-rama,  and  sometimes  to  Bhima. 


Hero-ivorsJiip  and  Saint-icorship. 


271 


It  is  certain  that  earthen  vessels  containing  coins  are  often 
duc^  up  on  the  hills.  No  wonder  that  he  has  many  followers 
in  Malabar  and  the  Kohkan  \  but  I  met  with  no  actual 
worshippers  in  other  places  who  adore  him  as  a  god. 

Similarly  the  five  Pandava  princes,  Yudhi-shthira,  Bhima, 
Arjuna,  Nakula,  and  Sahadcva,  who  are  all  great  heroes  of 
the  Maha-bharata,  receive  little  actual  worship  at  the  present 
day,  though  Krishna,  another  great  hero  of  the  same  poem,  is 
universally  adored.  The  five  brothers  were  the  reputed 
children  of  Pandu  and  his  wife  KuntI  (or  Pritha),  but  are 
believed  to  have  really  derived  their  origin  from  the  gods 
Yama  (  =  Dharma-raja),  Vayu,  Indra,  and  the  two  Asvins 
respectively.  These  deities  infused  portions  of  their  essences 
into  Kuntl's  children,  and  great  prodigies  occurred  at  their 
birth.  When  grown  up  they  had  one  wife  in  common,  called 
DraupadT-.  I  have  seen  several  shrines  of  DraupadI  (called 
in  Southern  India  DraupadI- Amman),  but  her  five  husbands 
receive  little  actual  adoration. 

Nevertheless,  any  marvel  or  prodigy,  any  rock  of  fantastic 
shape,  or  any  wonderful  work  the  performance  of  which 
appears  to  be  beyond  human  power,  is  often  ascribed  to 
the  Pandavas.     I  visited  some  remarkable  Buddhistic  caves 

^  A  tribe  of  Brahmans  in  the  Kohkan  called  dit-pavans  is  said  to 
have  been  created  by  Parasu-rama  thus  : — After  his  contest  with  the 
Kshatriyas  he  took  up  his  abode  in  the  mountains  of  that  part  of  India. 
There  he  had  -a  quarrel  with  some  Brahmans  who  resided  with  him 
in  the  same  region.  Then  to  spite  them  he  went  to  the  sea-shore,  and 
finding  fourteen  funeral  piles  (citas  =  caityas)  with  the  remains  of  a 
number  of  persons  who  had  been  burnt,  resuscitated  them  and  converted 
them  into  Brahmans. 

-  Certain  hill-tribes  in  the  Himalaya  mountains  are  still  given  to 
Polyandry,  It  is  practised  also  among  the  Todas  and  the  Nayars  in 
Malabar,  and  among  certain  tribes  in  New  Zealand,  the  Pacific  islands, 
the  Aleutian  islands,  Africa,  Australia,  as  well  as  among  the  Kalmucks, 
Iroquois,  and  in  Bhotan  and  other  barren  regions  where  a  large  popula- 
tion is  not  easily  supported.  The  ancient  Britons,  according  to  Ca:sar, 
were  addicted  to  the  same  practice.  See  De  Bello  Gallico,  v.  14.  Com- 
pare Lubbock's  '  Origin  of  Civilization,'  p.  139. 


272 


Hcro-iuorship  and  Saint-worship. 


excavated  at  a  considerable  height  from  the  ground  in  the  hills 
near  Nasik.  The  people  of  the  country  fully  believe  them  to 
have  been  the  work  of  the  Pandavas,  and  call  them  Pandu-lene. 
It  is  therefore  surprising  that  so  few  shrines  dedicated  to  these 
heroes  are  found  in  any  part  of  India. 

In  one  of  the  galleries  of  the  temple  at  Tinnevelly  I 
observed  well-carved  images  of  all  the  five  brothers,  Arjuna 
being  especially  conspicuous  with  his  bow  Gruidlva,  and 
Bhima  with  his  club.  It  is  worthy  of  note,  too,  that  five 
rough  stones  smeared  with  red  paint  may  occasionally  be 
seen  set  up  in  fields.  These  are  probably  intended  to  repre- 
sent the  five  Pandava  princes  who  are  supposed  to  guard 
the  crops.  Such  stones  abound  in  various  parts  of  India, 
but  are  not  always  five  in  number,  sometimes  as  many  as 
twenty  being  ranged  together  in  a  kind  of  circle. 

Again,  I  saw  images  to  the  honour  of  the  Pandavas  at 
Madura,  and  at  Bodh-gaya,  but  no  worshippers  were  near 
them^  Yet  the  characters  of  these  heroes  are  quite  as  much 
venerated  now  as  they  ever  were  in  ancient  times,  and  their 
virtues,  as  narrated  in  the  Maha-bharata,  are  to  this  day  pro- 
verbial throughout  India.  Arjuna,  who  is  the  most  renowned, 
is  a  pattern  of  bravery  and  generosity;  Yudhi-shthira  of 
justice,  passionless  self-command,  and  cold  heroism  ;  Nakula 
and  Sahadeva  of  wisdom,  temperance,  and  beauty;  while 
Bhima  is  a  type  of  brute  courage  and  physical  strength. 

Representations  of  his  gigantic  form  are  not  uncommon, 
but  are  rather  curiosities  to  excite  wonder,  than  objects  to 
attract  worship.  I  saw  a  huge  image  of  him  on  one  of  the 
Ghats  at  Benares,  and  another  near  the  Agra  fort,  and  another 
in  a  corridor  of  the  Liiiga  temple  at  Tinnevelly.  This  last  is 
about  20  feet  high  and  holds  a  huge  club.  It  is  painted 
bright  red  and  made  for  moving  about  in  processions. 

Bhima's  great  strength  is  illustrated  by  a  curious  story. 

'  In  the  Maratha  country  a  single  rudely-carved  figure,  especially  if 
mounted,  is  called  a  Vir  {yi)'a,  hero),  or  sometimes  a  Dev  {deva^  god). 


Ilcro-ivorship  and  Saiut-ivorship.  273 

Soon  after  his  birth  his  mother,  who  was  carrying  him  in  her 
arms  up  a  mountain,  accidentally  let  him  fall  over  a  precipice, 
and  on  descending  in  great  agony  of  mind,  expecting  to 
find  her  baby  dashed  to  pieces  on  th.c  rock  beneath,  she 
found  to  her  amazement  and  delight  that  tlie  boy  was 
unhurt,  and  the  rock  shivered  to  atoms  by  contact  with  his 
body. 

Karna,  too,  another  of  the  Maha-bharata  heroes  (also  son 
of  Kunti  by  the  Sun-god),  is  greatly  revered,  and  often  cited 
in  proverbial  expressions,  as  a  model  of  liberality,  chivalrous 
honour,  and  self-sacrificing  generosity.  I  saw  one  or  two 
images  of  him  in  Southern  India,  but  met  with  no  shrines 
dedicated  to  his  worship. 

Clearly  the  hero-worship  of  India  is  subject  to  constant 
changes  and  fluctuations.  Worshippers  are  capricious ;  great 
warriors,  great  saints,  and  great  sages  have  their  day  and  find 
themselves  gradually  pushed  into  the  background,  while  their 
places  are  taken  by  rival  warriors,  saints,  and  sages  who  claim 
to  be  still  greater  \ 

'  That  man-worship  is  not  confined  to  India  may  be  proved  by 
numerous  examples  drawn  from  all  countries.  In  Africa  the  King  of 
Loango  is  honoured  as  a  god.  His  person  is  so  sacred  that  no  one  is 
allowed  to  see  him  eat.  In  Peru  a  particular  Inca  was  adored  as  a  god 
during  his  lifetime.  In  New  Zealand  the  warrior  chief,  Hongi,  was  called 
a  god  by  his  followers.  At  the  Society  Islands,  King  Tamatoa  was 
worshipped,  and  in  the  Marquesas  there  arc  several  men  named  atua 
believed  to  possess  the  power  of  gods.  At  Tahiti  the  king  and  queen 
were  once  held  so  sacred  that  the  sounds  forming  their  names  could 
not  be  used  for  ordinary  words.  See  '  Origin  of  Civilization,'  by  Sir  J. 
Lubbock,  p.  355, 


CHAPTER    XI. 

Death,  Fiuieral  Rites,  and  Ancestor-worship. 

In  the  two  preceding  chapters  we  have  had  occasion  to 
state  incidentally  the  Hindu  doctrine  in  regard  to  the  spirits 
of  the  dead.  We  have  seen  that  they  are  supposed  to  pass 
into  one  or  other  of  two  very  different  conditions.  They  may 
be  degraded  to  the  state  of  evil  demons  or  elevated  to  the 
position  of  divinities  ^  In  the  former  case  they  are  rather 
feared  and  propitiated  than  worshipped ;  in  the  latter  they 
are  rather  reverenced  and  worshipped  than  propitiated.  In 
the  present  chapter  I  have  to  point  out  how  far  this  varying 
condition  of  deceased  persons  depends  on  the  performance  of 
funeral  and  ancestral  rites  by  living  relatives  and  descendants. 

Of  all  forms  of  religious  devotion  homage  to  dead  relations 
is  the  most  widely  extended  ^.  It  forms  a  part  of  nearly  all 
religions,  and  is  an  element  in  the  creed  of  nearly  every  race  ^. 
Perhaps  the  one  exception  is  Protestant  Christianity.  The 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  as  is  well  known,  teaches  that  suppli- 
cations and  prayers  may  avail  to  improve  the  condition  of 
departed   spirits  in  purgatory.     Not  only  therefore   does  it 

^  In  the  same  way  among  the  Romans  some  souls  of  the  dead  were 
good,  pure,  and  bright,  and  therefore  called  Manes  ;  while  others,  called 
Larvae  and  Lemures,  wandered  about  as  unquiet  ghosts,  and  were  often 
regarded  as  evil  spirits.  Compare  also  the  Roman  ideas  respecting  the 
Penates.  With  regard  to  the  ideas  prevalent  among  the  Greeks,  the 
following  passages  bear  on  the  existence  of  the  ^/'I'xi?  after  death  as  an 
ilhakov  in  Hades  :   II.  xxiii.  72,  104  ;  Od.  xi.  213,  476  ;  xx.  355  ;  xxiv.  14. 

"^  I  refer  any  one  who  doubts  this  fact  to  Mr.  E.  B.  Tylor's  'Primitive 
Culture,'  vol.  ii.  chap,  xviii. 

*  The  Bishop  of  Madagascar  stated  not  long  ago,  that  when  he  had  to 
descend  a  dangerous  stream  in  that  island,  the  boatmen  made  offerings 
to  the  spirits  of  their  ancestors  before  attempting  to  shoot  the  rapids. 


Death,  Funeral  Rites,  and  Ancestor-icors/iip.     275 

permit  special  masses  to  be  offered  for  the  souls  of  deceased 
relations,  it  introduces  a  prayer  for  the  dead  into  the  regular 
daily  mass  ^. 

According  to  the  Protestant  creed,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
condition  of  the  dead  is  irrevocably  fixed.  To  think  of  ame- 
liorating it  by  human  intercession  is  nothing  short  of  heresy. 
Nor  is  it  customary  to  perpetuate  by  any  kind  of  act,  peri- 
odically repeated,  the  memory  of  one's  nearest  and  dearest 
relatives.  It  is  no  doubt  true  that  tombs  are  occasionally 
visited,  and  perhaps  in  the  case  of  royal  personages  me- 
morial services  may  be  performed ;  and  we  have  lately  been 
informed,  on  the  authority  of  an  eminent  Bishop-,  that  the 
Church  of  England  does  not  condemn  special  services  for  the 
spirits  of  the  dead  ^. 

It  is  also  true  that  every  respectable  man  who  has  had  a 
respectable  father  or  mother  will  be  careful  to  reverence  their 
memory ^  but  I  question  whether  the  same  man  ever  feels  it 
his  duty  to  bestow  a  single  reverential  thought  on  either  of 

^  Our  prayer  for  the  Church  militant  has,  I  beHeve,  taken  the  place  of 
this.  In  some  Roman  Catholic  countries  it  is  customary  to  exhume 
skeletons  at  intervals  of  several  years,  and  to  place  their  skulls  in  a 
small  chapel  adjoining  the  parish-church.  This  chapel  is  in  German 
Switzerland  called  the  Schiidcl-haus,  'Skull-house,'  and  is  used  as  an 
oratory  where  people  pray  for  their  dead  relations  and  friends. 

'^  According  to  the  Bishop  of  Peterborough,  the  belief  was  undoubtedly 
general  in  the  early  Church  that  the  souls  of  the  faithful,  though  free 
from  all  suffering,  were  capable,  while  awaiting  their  final  consummation 
and  bliss,  of  a  progress  in  holiness  and  happiness  ;  and  that  prayers  for 
such  progress  might  lawfully  be  made  in  their  behalf.  Accordingly, 
prayers  for  'the  rest  and  refreshment  of  the  departed'  abound  in  the 
early  liturgies  of  the  Church.  See  the  Bishop's  letter  to  the  Rev.  J. 
Mason's,  parishioners  who  complained  of  Mr.  Mason's  having  given 
notice  that  he  intended  celebrating  the  Holy  Communion  for  the  repose 
of  Dr.  Pusey's  soul. 

^  All  Saints'  Day  is  observed  in  the  Church  of  England  as  well  as  in 
the  Church  of  Rome.  In  some  Roman  Catholic  countries  great  feasting 
takes  place  on  this  day,  and  the  souls  of  the  dead  are  supposed  to  join  in 
the  festivities  and  consume  the  essence  of  the  food  before  it  is  eaten. 

*  The  feeling  seems  to  find  vent  in  putting  periodical  advertisements 
'  in  loving  memory '  in  the  obituary  of  the  newspapers. 

T  2 


276    Death,  Funeral  Rites,  and  Ancestor-worship. 

his  departed  grandfathers  and  grandmothers,  and  whether  he 
would  beheve  in  the  sanity  of  any  one  who  was  in  the  habit  of 
offering  periodical  homage  to  his  two  great-grandfathers  and 
great-grandmothers. 

This  neglect  of  one's  ancestors,  which  seems  to  spring  not 
so  much  from  any  want  of  sympathy  with  the  departed  as 
from  an  utter  disbelief  in  any  interconnexion  between  this 
world  and  the  world  of  spirits,  is  by  some  regarded  as  a 
defect  in  our  religious  character  and  practice. 

In  Eastern  countries,  especially  India  and  China,  the  oppo- 
site extreme  generally  prevails.  We  know  that  in  India, 
every  religious  duty  is  magnified  and  intensified.  There,  to 
speak  of  mere  reverence  for  the  dead  is  a  very  inadequate 
expression.  The  constant  periodical  performance  of  com- 
memorative obsequies  is  regarded  in  the  light  of  a  positive 
and  peremptory  obligation.  It  is  the  simple  discharge  of  a 
solemn  debt  due  to  one's  forefathers — a  debt  consisting  not 
only  in  reverential  homage,  but  in  the  performance  of  acts 
necessary  to  their  support,  happiness,  and  progress  onward  in 
the  spirit-world.  A  man's  deceased  relatives,  for  at  least 
three  generations,  are  among  his  cherished  divinities,  and  must 
be  honoured  by  daily  offerings  and  adoration,  or  a  Nemesis  of 
some  kind  is  certain  to  overtake  his  living  family. 

Nothing,  in  fact,  interested  me  more  in  what  I  saw  of  the 
religious  practices  of  the  Hindus,  and  nothing  seemed  to  me 
more  worthy  of  note  in  comparing  Hinduism  with  other  re- 
ligions, than  the  elaborate  nature  of  its  funeral  rites  and  the 
extraordinary  importance  attached  to  these  and  to  the  sub- 
sequent ceremonies  called  Sraddha. 

And  here  at  the  outset  it  may  be  well  to  point  out  that  the 
main  object  of  a  Hindu  funeral  is  very  different  from  that 
of  European  obsequial  rites. 

It  is  nothing  less  than  the  investiture  of  the  departed 
spirit  with  an  intermediate  gross  body  —  a  peculiar  frame 
interposed,   as  it  were  parenthetically,   between    the   terres- 


Death,  Funeral  Rites,  and  Ancestor-ii'or ship,     277 

trial  gross  body  which  lias  just  been  destroyed  by  fire,  and 
the  new  terrestrial  body  which  it  is  compelled  ultimately  to 
assume.  The  creation  of  such  an  intervenicnt  frame — com- 
posed of  gross  elements,  though  less  gross  than  those  of 
earth — becomes  necessary,  because  the  individualized  s[)irit 
of  man,  after  cremation  of  the  terrestrial  body,  has  nothing 
left  to  withhold  it  from  re-absorption  into  the  universal  soul, 
except  its  incombustible  subtle  body,  which,  as  composed 
of  the  subtle  elements,  is  not  only  proof  against  the  fire 
of  the  funeral  pile,  but  is  incapable  of  any  sensations  in 
the  temporary  heaven  or  temporary  hell,  through  one  or 
other  of  which  every  separate  human  spirit  is  forced  to  pass 
before  returning  to  earth  and  becoming  reinvested  with  a 
terrestrial  gross  body. 

Were  it  not  for  this  intermediate  frame — believed  to  be 
created  by  the  offerings  made  during  the  funeral  ceremonies 
— the  spirit  would  remain  with  its  subtle  body  in  the  con- 
dition of  an  impure  and  unquiet  ghost  (preta)  wandering 
about  on  the  earth  or  in  the  air  among  demons  and  evil 
spirits,  and  condemned  itself  to  become  an  evil  spirit  I  Its 
reception  of  the  intervenicnt  body  converts  it  from  a  Preta 
or  ghost  into  a  Pitri  or  ancestor  ;  but  this  does  not  satisfy 
all  its  needs.  The  new  body  it  has  received,  though  not 
so  gross  as  that  of  earth,  must  be  developed  and  sup- 
ported. It  must,  if  possible,  be  rescued  from  the  fire  of 
purgatory.  It  must  be  assisted  onwards  in  its  course 
from  lower  to  higher  worlds  and  back  again  to  earth. 
And  these  results  can  only  be  accomplished  by  the  cere- 
monies  called    Sraddha  —  ceremonies   which    may    in    some 


Mt  is  curious  that  the  Hindu  notion  of  the  restless  state  of  the  soul 
until  the  Sraddha  is  performed  agrees  witli  the  ancient  classical  super- 
stition that  the  ghosts  of  the  dead  wandered  about  as  long  as  their 
bodies  remained  unburied,  and  were  not  suffered  to  mingle  with  those 
of  the  other  dead.  See  Od.  xi.  54  ;  II.  xxiii.  72  ;  and  cf.  .Kn.  vi.  3:5  ; 
Lucan,  i,  ii  ;   Eur.  Hec.  30. 


278    Deaths  Funeral  Rites,  and  Ancestor-worship. 

respects  be  compared  to  the  Roman  Catholic  masses  for 
the  dead.  The  first  Sraddha — to  be  afterwards  described — 
is  performed  very  soon  after  the  funeral  rites,  and  is  always 
a  costly  affair. 

In  England,  the  religious  services  at  a  funeral  occupy 
about  half  an  hour,  and  the  entire  ceremony,  with  all  its 
attendant  circumstances,  is  performed  in  the  present  day  at 
little  cost. 

In  India,  the  funeral  ceremonies  of  the  older  members  of  a 
family^  occupy  ten  days,  and  with  the  succeeding  Sraddha 
rites — carried  on  with  the  help  of  Brahmans  and  including 
the  feasting  of  numberless  guests  and  the  distribution  of 
presents — may  involve  an  enormous  expenditure.  I  found 
that  the  cost  to  even  the  poorest  respectable  person  was 
forty  rupees,  and  that  any  one  well-to-do  in  the  world 
would  incur  the  everlasting  obloquy  of  his  family  and  friends 
and  be  almost  excommunicated  from  society  if  he  spent 
less  than  six  thousand  or  seven  thousand  rupees  on  the 
funeral  of  a  father  and  in  the  carrying  out  of  all  the  other 
necessary  ceremonies  consequent  on  his  death.  It  is  well 
known  that  the  expenditure  incurred  on  such  occasions  by 
rich  Bengal  Rajas  and  Zamlndars  of  high  family  has  often 
impoverished  them  for  the  remainder  of  their  lives.  In- 
stances are  on  record  of  a  single  funeral  and  Sraddha  costing 
a  sum  equivalent  to  ;^i  20,000,  the  greater  part  of  that  amount 
being  squandered  on  worthless  Brahmans,  indolent  Pandits, 
hypocritical  devotees,  and  vagabond  religious  mendicants. 

In  truth,  the  expenditure  of  time,  money,  and  energy 
needed  to  satisfy  public  opinion  before  a  man  is  held  to 
have  discharged  the  debt  due  to  a  deceased  father,  and 
before  he  is  relieved  from  the  long  course  of  fasting  and 
mourning  he  is  expected  to  undergo,  constitutes  an  evil 
which  has  gradually  grown  till  it  has  become  a  veritable 
curse  to  the  country,  and  one  of  the  principal  bars  to  any 

*  The  funeral  rites  of  children  are  much  simpler  and  shorter. 


Death,  Funeral  Rites,  and  Ancestor-^vorship.     279 

advance  in  its  social  condition.  Nor  is  there  any  warrant 
for  the  system  in  the  more  ancient  books  held  sacred  in 
India  as  authoritative  guides. 

Let  us  try  to  ascertain  the  ancient  practice  by  a  reference 
to  the  Veda  and  SiJtras. 

The  ceremonies  in  Vedic  times  must  have  been  very 
simple.  We  gather  from  the  i8th  hymn  of  the  10th  Man- 
clala  of  the  Rig-veda  that  the  dead  body  was,  in  all  proba- 
bility, not  burnt  but  buried.  It  was  deposited  near  a  grave 
dug  ready  for  its  reception,  while  the  widow  lay  down  or 
seated  herself  by  its  side,  and  the  relatives — female  as  well 
as  male — ranged  themselves  in  a  circle  all  around.  Their 
first  concern  seems  to  have  been  to  propitiate  Death,  sup- 
posed to  be  personally  present  and  to  be  naturally  eager 
to  take  the  opportunity  of  laying  his  hands  on  some  other 
member  of  the  family  brought  by  the  necessity  of  attending 
the  funeral  within  easy  and  somewhat  tempting  reach  of 
his  clutches.  Hence  the  person  appointed  to  perform  the 
ceremony  addressed  Death,  calling  upon  him  to  keep  clear 
of  the  path  of  the  living,  and  deprecating  any  attack  on 
the  sui-vivors,  who  were  assembled  to  perform  pious  rites 
for  their  dead  relative,  but  had  no  idea  of  yielding  them- 
selves up  into  his  power,  or  renouncing  the  expectation  of 
a  long  life  themselves.  The  leader  of  the  funeral  next 
placed  a  boundary  of  stones  between  the  dead  body  and 
the  living  relations,  to  mark  off  the  limits  of  Death's  au- 
thority.  Then  followed  a  prayer  that  none  of  those  present 
mierht  be  removed  to  another  world  before  attaining  to  the 
full  period  of  a  life  lasting  for  a  hundred  years.  This 
prayer  was  no  doubt  accompanied  with  oblations  in  fire, 
after  which  the  widow's  married  female  relatives  were  di- 
rected by  the  performer  of  the  ceremony  to  prepare  for  the 
return  home.  They  were  to  lead  the  way  without  weeping 
or  any  signs  of  grief,  and  without  taking  off  their  jewelry'. 

^  The  words  of  the  hymn  are,  Anasravo  'naiiilvah  su-ratnH  a  rohantu 


28o    Death,  Funeral  Rites,  and  Ancestor-zvorship. 

Then  the  widow  herself  was  told  to  leave  the  corpse  of  her 
dead  husband  in  the  inner  circle  assigned  to  Death,  and 
join  her  surviving  relations  outside  the  boundary  line.  She 
was  addressed  in  words  to  the  following  effect :  '  Rise  up, 
O  woman  (udlrshva  nari),  come  back  to  the  world  of  the 
living  ;  thou  art  lying  by  a  dead  man  ;  come  back.  Thou 
hast  sufficiently  fulfilled  the  duty  of  a  wife  to  the  husband 
who  formerly  wooed  thee  and  took  thee  by  the  hand' 
(Rig-veda  X.  i8.  8).  Next,  the  performer  of  the  ceremony 
took  a  bow,  previously  placed  in  the  hand  of  the  deceased, 
and  gave  it  to  his  relatives  in  token  that  the  manly  courage 
he  had  displayed  during  life  was  not  to  perish  with  him, 
but  to  remain  with  his  family.  Addressing  the  dead  man 
he  said,  '  I  take  the  bow  out  of  thy  hand  for  our  own  pro- 
tection, for  our  glory,  and  for  our  strength ;  remain  thou 
here,  we  will  remain  here  as  heroes,  so  that  in  all  battles 
we  may  conquer  our  foes'  (X.  i8.  9).  The  body  was  then 
tenderly  committed  to  its  'house  of  clay'  (mrin-mayarn  gri- 
ham,  Rig-veda  VII.  89,  i),  with  the  words,  'Return  to  thy 
mother  Earth,  may  she  be  kind  to  thee  and  lie  lightly  on 
thee,  and  not  oppress  thee;'  and  with  other  similar  words, 
which  may  be  thus  freely  translated  : — 

Open  thy  arms,  O  earth,  receive  the  dead 
With  gentle  pressure  and  with  loving  welcome. 
Enshroud  him  tenderly,  e'en  as  a  mother 
Folds  her  soft  vestment  round  the  child  she  loves. 

(X.  18.  II.) 

Finally,  a  mound  or  column  (sthuna)  of  earth  was  reared 
over  the  grave,  and  the  Pitris  or  deified  ancestors  and  the 
god  Yama  were  entreated  to  preserve  it. 

janayo  yonim  og-r^, 'without  tears,  without  sorrow,  bedecked  with  jewels, 
let  the  wives  go  to  the  house  first.'  It  is  said  that  the  Brahmans 
fraudulently  substituted  agneh,  '  of  fire,'  for  agre,  '  first,'  and  that  this 
verse  was  then  quoted  as  the  Vedic  authority  for  the  burning  of  widows  ; 
whereas  neither  the  Veda  nor  Manu  directed  or  even  hinted  at  the  con- 
cremation  of  the  living  wife  with  her  dead  husband. 


Death,  Funeral  Riles,  and  Anccslor-iuorship.    28  r 

It  is  remarkable  that  in  some  passages  of  the  hymns  (X. 
58.  7  ;  16.  3)  there  are  dim  hints  of  a  behef  in  the  possible 
migration  of  the  spirits  of  the  deceased  into  plants,  trees,  and 
streams. 

It  is  to  be  noted,  however,  that  no  very  distinct  account 
of  the  condition  of  the  virtuous  dead  is  to  be  found  in  the 
oldest  hymns  of  the  Rig-veda,  although  a  future  life  is  fully 
recognized,  and  although  the  Pitris  or  departed  ancestors 
are  addressed  with  the  utmost  reverence  (VI.  52.  4 ;  VII. 
35.12;  X.  14.  7,  8,  etc.).  Nor  do  we  find  any  clear  mention 
of  hells  or  places  of  torment  for  the  wicked,  although  wc 
read  of  dark  and  deep  abysses  into  which  bad  men  are 
thrown  along  with  the  evil  demons  \ 

Passing  from  Vedic  times  to  the  period  when  the  Asva- 
layana  and  other  collections  of  domestic  rules  (Grihya-sutras) 
were  composed,  probably  about  five  or  six  centuries  before 
Christ,  we  find  that  funeral  rites,  though  still  conducted  with 
much  simplicity,  were  beginning  to  be  more  elaborate  and 
more  in  unison  with  present  custom.  If  the  practice  of  cre- 
mation was  doubtful  in  Vedic  times  it  was  now  invariable, 
except  in  the  case  of  infants  and  of  great  saints.  As  far 
as  can  be  gathered  from  a  study  of  the  rules  laid  down, 
the  ceremonial  must  have  been  much  as  follows : — 

When  a  man  died,  his  immediate  family,  headed  by  the 
eldest  son  or  other  near  relative,  formed  a  procession  to  a 
properly  prepared  place  in  the  Smasana  or  'burning  ground,' 
carrying  the  sacred  fires  and  sacrificial  implements.  The 
younger  walked  first,  the  elder  behind— the  men  separated 
from  the  women-— bearing  the  corpse,  the  hair  and  nails  of 
which  had  been  clipped,  and  leading  the  sacrificial  animal, 


1  '  Indra  and  Soma  plunge  the  wicked  in  inextricable  darkness,  so  that 
not  one  of  them  may  again  issue  from  it.'  Sec  Rig-vcda  \'1I.  104.  3, 
and  compare  IV.  5.  5  ;  IX.  73.  8. 

2  In  the  present  day  the  only  part  women  take  in  funeral  ceremonies 
is  that  of  weeping  and  wailing  and  uttering  loud  cries  of  grief  at  home. 


282    Death,  Funeral  Rites,  and  Anccstoi'-worsJiip. 

either  a  cow^  or  a  black  she-goat.  The  remaining  relatives 
followed  with  their  garments  hanging  down  and  their  hair 
dishevelled — the  elder  in  front,  the  younger  behind.  When 
they  reached  the  funeral  ground,  the  son  or  brother  or  other 
near  relative  appointed  to  perform  the  ceremony,  taking  a 
branch  of  the  Saml-trec,  sprinkled  holy  water  on  the  spot 
excavated  and  prepared  for  the  pile,  repeating  Rig-veda 
X.  14.  9  :  ^  Depart  (ye  evil  spirits),  slink  away  from  here ; 
the  Fathers  (his  departed  ancestors)  have  made  for  him  this 
place  of  rest.' 

Then  the  sacred  fires  were  deposited  around  the  margin 
of  the  excavated  place,  and  a  heap  of  fire-wood  was  piled 
up  inside  the  sacrificial  ground  (antar-vedi).  Next,  a  layer 
of  Kusa  grass  was  spread  over  the  pile  along  with  the  black 
skin  of  the  goat.  Then  the  clipped  hair  and  the  dead  body 
was  placed  upon  it,  with  the  feet  towards  one  of  the  fires 
and  the  head  towards  the  other.  Next,  the  widow  was 
made  to  lie  down  on  the  funeral  pile  north  of  the  body, 
along  with  the  bow  of  her  deceased  husband,  but  was  not 
allowed  to  remain  there  long.  Soon  the  leader  of  the 
funeral  called  upon  her  to  rise,  repeating  Rig-veda  X.  18.  8, 
already  quoted  (see  p.  280). 

Next,  he  took  back  the  bow,  repeating  Rig-veda  X.  18.9 
(quoted  at  p.  280). 

Then  he  placed  the  various  sacrificial  implements  and 
portions  of  the  sacrificial  animal  in  the  two  hands  and  on 
different  parts  of  the  body  of  the  corpse.  This  being 
done,  he  kindled  the  three  sacred  fires.  While  the  body 
was   burning,  portions  of  hymns  of  the   Rig-veda  (such  as 


^  The  sacrifice  of  a  cow  (called  Anustarani)  at  ancient  funeral  cere- 
monies proves,  according  to  Dr.  Rajendra-lala  Mitra,  that  in  early  times 
there  was  no  law  against  the  eating  of  flesh,  and  even  of  beef.  A  cow 
was  killed,  that  the  dead  might  have  a  supply  of  the  essence  of  beef  for 
their  journey  ;  and  when  the  spirits  of  the  departed  had  feasted  on  the 
aroma  of  the  immolated  animal,  the  actual  flesh  was  left  for  the  living. 


Dca th ,  Fh ncra I  Rites,  and  A  nccstor-worsh Ip.    28  3 

X.  14.  7,  8,  10,  II  ;    16.  1-4;   17.  2y-(^-^   18.  I  I  ;   154.  i-r;)  were 
repeated. 

The  following  are  free  translations  of  some  of  the  verses  : — 

Soul  of  the  dead !   depart ;   take  tliou  the  path — 
The  ancient  path — by  which  our  ancestors 
Have  gone  before  thee  ;  thou  slialt  look  upon 
The  two  kings,  mighty  Varuna  and  Yama, 
Delighting  in  oblations  ;  thou  shall  meet 
The  Fathers  and  receive  the  recompense 
Of  all  thy  stored-up  ofilerings  above. 
Leave  thou  thy  sin  and  imperfection  here  ; 
Return  unto  thy  home  once  more  ;  assume 
A  glorious  form.     By  an  auspicious  path 
Hasten  to  pass  the  four-eyed  brindled  dogs — 
The  two  road-guarding  sons  of  Sarama  ; 
Advance  to  meet  the  Fathers  who,  with  hearts 
Kindly  disposed  towards  thee,  dwell  in  bliss 
With  Yama ;   and  do  thou,  O  mighty  god, 
Intrust  him  to  thy  guards^  to  bring  him  to  thee, 
And  grant  him  health  and  hapj5iness  eternal. 

(X.  I4.7-II-) 

When  a  dead  body  was  thus  burnt  the  spirit  —  invested 
with  its  incombustible  subtle  frame — was  supposed  to  rise 
along  with  the  smoke  to  heaven. 

Then  the  performer  of  the  ceremony  repeated  the  verse 
(Rig-veda  X.  18.  3):— 

We  living  men,  survivors,  now  return 
And  leave  the  dead  ;   may  our  oblations  please 
The  gods  and  bring  us  blessings !   now  we  go 
To  dance  and  jest  and  hope  for  longer  life. 

After  this  they  proceeded  homewards,  the  younger  walking 
in  front,  the  elder  behind.  But  before  re-entering  the  house 
.they  purified  themselves  by  chewing  leaves  of  the  Nimba- 
tree^,  and  by  touching  fire,  grains  of  barley,  oil,  and  water. 
During  one  night  they  cooked  no  food,  and  for  three  nights 
ate  nothing  containing  salt. 

After  the  tenth  day  the  bones  and  ashes  of  the  deceased 

^  These  are  the  two  four-eyed  watch-dogsmentioned  at  p.  2S9. 
^  This,  however,  is  not  mentioned  in  the  Asvalayana  Sutras. 


284    Death,  Funeral  Rites,  and  Ancestor-zvorship. 

were  gathered  together  and  placed  in  a  plain  undecorated 
funeral  vase.  This  particular  act,  which  in  modern  times  is 
generally  performed  on  the  fourth  day,  was  called  Asthi- 
sancaya,  '  bone-collection/  A  hole  was  excavated  and  the 
vessel  placed  in  it,  while  Rig-veda  X.  18.  10  was  repeated: 
'  Return  to  thy  mother  Earth,  the  Widely-extended,  the 
Broad,  the  Auspicious  ;  may  she  be  to  thee  like  a  young 
maiden,  soft  as  wool  (urna-mrada) !  may  she  protect  thee 
from  the  embrace  of  the  goddess  of  corruption!' 

Then  earth  was  scattered  over  the  excavation,  with  re- 
petition of  the  twelfth  verse  of  the  same  hymn.  Lastly,  a 
cover  was  placed  over  the  vase  and  the  hole  was  filled  up 
with  earth,  while  the  thirteenth  verse  was  repeated  :  '  I  raise 
up  the  earth  around  thee  for  a  support,  placing  this  cover 
on  thee  without  causing  injury.  May  the  Fathers  guard  this 
funeral  monument  for  thee  !  May  Yama  establish  a  habitation 
for  thee  there  ! ' 

The  principal  rite  being  thus  brought  to  a  close,  the  re- 
lations returned  home,  and  after  performing  an  ablution 
offered  the  first  Sraddha  to  the  deceased  person. 

I  may  mention  here  that,  being  one  day  on  the  Bombay 
burning-ground,  I  was  a  spectator  of  a  modern  bone-gather- 
ing ceremony,  which  had  many  features  in  common  with 
the  ancient  rite.  A  Brahman  and  five  women  were  seated 
in  a  semicircle  round  the  ashes  and  bones  of  a  young  mar- 
ried girl  of  low  caste^  whose  body  had  recently  been  burnt. 
Before  them  was  an  earthenware  vase,  and  around  it  were 
flowers,  fruits,  and  betel-leaves.  The  Brahman  had  a  metal 
vase  shaped  something  like  a  tumbler  in  his  hand  containing 
consecrated  or  holy  water,  with  a  small  round  spoon  or  ladle 
he  took  out  a  small  portion  of  the  water  and  poured  it  into 
the  hands  of  the  woman,  at  the  same  time  muttering  texts 
and  prayers.  Then  he  poured  water  into  the  vase,  and  on 
the  top  of  the  water  placed  the  fruit,  flowers,  and  leaves. 
Next,  he  collected  the  half-calcined  bones,  and  having  put 


Death,  Funeral  Rites,  and  Ancestor-worship.    285 

them  carefully  and  reverentially  into  the  vase,  he  made  a 
hole  in  the  ground  a  few  yards  off  and  buried  it.  I  was 
told  that  the  vase  would  be  left  there  for  ten  days,  when  a 
Sraddha  would  be  performed  in  the  same  place. 

Turning  next  to  the  law-books  (sec  p.  51),  which  follow 
on  the  Sutras  and  are  based  on  them,  we  find,  as  might  be 
expected,  that  the  practice  they  inculcated  differed  little 
from  that  enjoined  in  the  Sutras,  h^uneral  rites  are  called 
'the  last  sacrifice'  (antyeshti),  that  is  to  say,  the  sacrifice 
of  the  body  in  fire.  They  are  regarded  as  inauspicious 
(amangala),  because  impurity  is  thought  to  result  from  con- 
tact with  a  dead  body  and  from  connexion  with  the  departed 
spirit,  which,  though  released  by  the  burning  of  the  body, 
is  still  regarded  as  impure  until  the  Sraddha  ceremonies  are 
performed.  Manu  even  declares  that  some  implication  of 
impurity  attaches  to  the  sound  of  the  Sama-veda  because 
it  is  chanted  at  funeral  services. 

The  Sraddha,  on  the  other  hand,  is  held  to  be  auspicious 
(mahgala),  because  it  is  performed  for  the  benefit  of  a  de- 
ceased person  after  he  has  received  ah  intermediate  body 
and  become  a  Pitri  or  beatified  father.  It  is  true  that 
both  funeral  and  Sraddha  ceremonies  consist  in  the  offering 
of  balls  (pinda)  of  rice  or  flour  and  libations  of  water,  with 
texts  and  prayers ;  but  in  the  funeral  rites  the  ball  of  rice 
is  for  the  nourishment  of  the  ghost  and  for  the  formation 
of  a  body  as  its  vehicle,  whereas  in  the  Sraddha  the  Pinda 
is  said  to  represent  the  body  so  formed,  and  is  offered  as 
an  act  of  homage.  Nevertheless  it  is  plainly  declared  in 
Manu  (III.  237)  and  elsewhere  that  the  embodied  Pitris 
require  the  periodical  offering  of  these  Pindas  and  water  for 
their  continual  nourishment  and  refreshment. 

A  large  number  of  relatives  are  supposed  to  partake  in  the 
benefits  of  the  Sraddha.  They  are  as  follow:— (1)  Father, 
father's  father, father's  grandfather;  (2) Mother, mother's  father, 
mother's  grandfather ;   (3)  Stepmother,  if  any ;   (4}  Father's 


286    Death,  Funeral  Rites,  and  Ancestor-worship. 

mother,  his  grandmother,  and  his  great-grandmother ;  (5) 
Father's  brothers ;  (6)  Mother's  brothers ;  (7)  Father's 
sisters;  (8)  Mother's  sisters;  (9)  Sisters  and  brothers;  (10) 
Fathers-in-law.  We  know,  in  fact,  that  the  Hindu  family 
(gotra)  is  held  to  be  a  corporate  society,  bound  together 
by  a  right  of  participation  in  the  Sraddha  offerings.  This 
right  furnishes  the  principal  evidence  of  kinship,  on  which 
the  title  to  share  in  the  patrimony  is  founded,  no  power  of 
making  wills  being  recognized  in  Manu  or  any  other  autho- 
ritative code  of  Hindu  jurisprudence.  All  who  unite  in 
presenting  to  their  deceased  ancestors  the  balls  (pinda)  of 
rice  or  flour  and  libations  of  water  (udaka)  are  called  Sa- 
pindas^  and  Samanodakas  to  each  other,  and  a  kind  of 
intercommunion  and  interdependence  is  thus  continually 
maintained  between  the  dead  and  living  members  of  a  family 
— between  past,  present,  and  future  generations.  Practically, 
however,  the  closeness  of  the  interconnexion  extends  only 
to  three  generations  on  each  side.  In  this  way  a  kind  of 
family  chain,  consisting  of  seven  links,  is  formed.  The 
householder  represents  the  central  link,  and  is  himself  linked 
to  father,  grandfather,  and  great-grandfather  on  one  side, 
and  to  son,  grandson,  and  great-grandson  on  the  other 
(Manu  V.  60),  The  first  three  are  supposed  to  be  de- 
pendent on  the  living  paterfamilias  for  their  happiness  and 
support,  through  the  constant  offering  of  the  ball-like  cakes 
and  water ;  and  he  himself,  the  moment  he  dies,  becomes 
similarly  dependent  on  the  three  succeeding  generations. 

The  connexion  which  is  kept  up  by  the  common  offering 
of  water  lasts  longer,  and  ends  only  when  the  family  names 
are  no  longer  known  (V.  60).  Manu's  law-book,  however, 
which  stands  at  the  head  of  all  the  others  and  is  the  earliest 
in  date,  makes  no  positive  statement  as  to  the  precise  dis- 

^  According  to  the  Mitakshara  school,  Pimla  may  also  signify  body,  and 
some  interpret  sapinda  to  mean  persons  united  by  bodily  relationship. 
The  other  school  is  that  of  the  Daya-bhaga,  which  prevails  in  Bengal. 


Death,  Funeral  Rites,  and  Ancestor-worship.    287 

tinction  between  tlie  funeral  or  Srfiddha  ceremonies.  Nor 
does  it  discriminate  clearly  between  the  subtle,  the  terres- 
trial, and  the  intermediate  bodies.  It  merely  affirms  that  a 
Sraddha  means  an  oblation  of  grain,  water,  or  other  sub- 
stances offered  with  faith  (sraddha),  and  that  the  perform- 
ance of  Sraddhas  by  a  son  is  necessary  to  deliver  a  father 
from  the  hell  called  Put  (IX.  I3<S);  whence  a  son  is  called 
Put-tra,  'the  rescuer  from  Put^'  This,  of  course,  sufficiently 
explains  the  desire  of  every  Hindu  for  the  birth  of  a  son 
rather  than  a  daughter. 

The  law-book  of  Yajnavalkya  is  later  in  date.  The  pre- 
cepts it  lays  down  (Book  III)  prove  that  in  the  early  centuries 
of  our  era  funerals  were  conducted  in  a  simple  manner.  Still, 
much  of  the  practice  was  in  harmony  with  modern  usage, 
as  well  as  with  that  of  the  Grihya-siltras  (p.  281). 

For  example,  a  child  under  two  years  of  age  was  not  burnt 
but  buried,  and  no  offering  of  water  was  made  to  it.  (See 
also  Manu  V.  68.)  The  corpse  of  any  other  deceased  per- 
son, except  that  of  a  great  saint  or  ascetic,  was  accom- 
panied by  a  procession  of  relations  to  the  burning-place, 
and  there  burnt  with  common  fire  (laukikagnina),  while  a 
hymn  to  Yama  was  repeated.  Next,  the  relatives  poured 
out  a  single  libation  of  water  to  the  deceased,  uttering  his 
name  and  family.  Then,  instead  of  shedding  tears  or  giving 
way  to  grief,  the  relatives,  after  performing  their  ablutions, 
seated  themselves  on  a  spot  covered  with  soft  grass,  while 
the  elder  repeated  to  the  younger  some  verses  from  the 
ancient  Itihasas,  such  as  the  following  (freely  translated) : — 

Does  it  not  argue  folly  to  expect 

Stability  in  man,  who  is  as  transient 

As  a  mere  bubble  and  fragile  as  a  stalk  .^ 

^  It  is  wholly  inconsistent  with  the  true  theory  of  I-Iindfiism  that  the 
Sraddha  should  deliver  a  man  from  the  consequence  of  his  own  deeds. 
Manu  says,  '  Iniquity  once  practised,  like  a  seed,  fails  not  to  yield  its 
fruit  to  him  that  wrought  it'  (IV.  173) ;  but  liindQism  bristles  with  such 
inconsistencies. 


2  88    Death,  Funeral  Rites,  and  Anccstor-iuorship. 

Why  should  we  utter  wailings  if  a  frame, 

Composed  of  five  material  elements, 

Is  decomposed  by  force  of  its  own  acts, 

And  once  again  resolved  into  its  parts  ? 

The  earth,  the  ocean,  and  the  gods  themselves 

Must  perish,  how  should  not  the  world 

Of  mortals,  light  as  froth,  obey  the  law 

Of  universal  death  and  perish  too  ? 

After  hearing  verses  of  this  kind  they  set  out  homewards, 

the  younger  ones  leading  the  way.     On  reaching  the  house 

they  made  a  solemn  pause  outside  the  door.      Then  they 

all  chewed  leaves  of  the  Nimba-tree  (popularly,  Nim),  rinsed 

their  mouths  with  water,  touched  fire,  water,  cow-dung,  and 

white  mustard-seed,  and  placed  their  feet  on  a  stone  ;  then 

they  slowly  re-entered  the  house.      Impurity  caused  by  the 

ceremonies    connected    with    touching    the    corpse    (savam 

asaucam)  lasted   for  either  three  nights  or  ten    nights.     In 

later   times   the    season    of   mourning   and    impurity   lasted 

longer  (see  p.  306,  note  3). 

Turn  we  now  to  the  more  modern  practice. 

Perhaps  the  best  authority  for  the  present  creed  of  the 
Hindus  in  regard  to  the  future  state  of  the  soul,  and  the 
best  guide  to  the  right  performance  of  funeral  and  Sraddha 
ceremonies,  is  the  Garuda-purana.  This  is  a  comparatively 
modern  w-ork — probably  not  older  than  the  seventh  or  eighth 
century,  and  possibly  still  more  modern.  It  is  written,  like 
other  Puranas,  in  the  form  of  a  dialogue ;  and  is  the  more  in- 
teresting, as  portions  of  it  are  recited  at  funerals  and  Sraddhas 
in  the  present  day.  The  dialogue  is  between  Vishnu  and 
Garuda — the  divine  bird  represented  as  always  attendant  on 
the  god  and  serving  as  his  vehicle  (see  p.  104).  Questioned 
by  Garuda,  Vishnu  reveals  the  secrets  of  the  future  world  and 
the  nature  of  the  punishment  in  store  for  the  wicked.  He  also 
prescribes  the  proper  ceremonies.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  how- 
ever, the  forms  now  observed  do  not  always  agree  with  the 
directions  in  the  Garuda-purana,  or  in  any  other  guide.  They 
vary  according  to  different  localities  and  different  castes. 


Death,  Funeral  Riles,  and  Ancestor-worship .    2S9 

To  describe  all  the  variations  within  ilic  limit  uf  a  single 
chapter  would  be  impossible.  I  can  only  advert  to  some 
principal  usages  in  the  case  of  the  death  of  persons  of 
higher  caste.  And  to  make  the  Hindu  theory  of  a  future 
state  clearer  —  complicated  as  it  is  by  numerous  contra- 
dictory statements  and  inconsistencies — it  will  be  necessary 
to  trace  the  development  of  the  prevalent  ideas  concerning 
the  character  and  functions  of  the  god  of  death,  Yama. 

Probably  the  name  Yama  in  the  Veda  is  to  be  connected 
with  an  obsolete  verb  j'«;//,  meaning  '  to  double  '  (Lat.  gemino). 
At  any  rate,  the  Vedic  meaning  of  the  word  seems  to  have 
been  '  twin,'  and  Yama  himself,  with  his  twin  sister  YamI, 
were  held  to  be  the  first  pair  of  mortals  born  into  the 
world,  being  both  children  of  Vivasvat  the  Sun  (see  p.  1 1  of 
this  volume,  and  compare  Rig-veda  X.  10).  As  he  was  sup- 
posed to  be  the  first  of  men  who  died,  it  was  only  natural 
that  the  earliest  myths  should  invest  him  with  the  office 
of  conducting  the  spirits  of  other  men  who  die  to  the  spirit- 
world — a  world  which,  according  to  some  later  authorities, 
is  to  be  regarded  as  divided  into  three  regions,  the  upper 
sky,  middle  air,  and  the  atmosphere  just  above  the  earth  ; 
the  ancient  patriarchs  occupying  the  highest  region,  and  the 
more  recently  deceased  the  lowest. 

The  next  of  the  ancient  ideas  concerning  Yama  was  that 
he  reigned  as  a  kind  of  president  of  the  dead  (Pitri-pati) 
in  the  upper  sky.  There  the  spirits  of  the  just,  invested 
with  celestial  lustre,  wafted  by  gentle  breezes  or  borne  in 
heavenly  cars,  continually  arrived,  and  became  themselves 
gods  to  be  worshipped  under  the  title  of  Pitris.  There 
they  enjoyed  the  society  not  only  of  Yama,  but  of  the  god 
Varuna,  also  supposed  to  dwell  there.  The  road  to  this  abode 
was  guarded  by  two  four-eyed  watch-dogs,  called  Syama, 
'dark,'  and  Sabala  (or  sometimes  Karbura),  'spotted'  (sec 
Rig-veda  X.  14.  10-12,  and  compare  p.  2S3).  Death,  and 
sometimes  Agni  (fire),  were  regarded  as  Yama's  messengers 

U 


290    DcatJi,  Funeral  Rites,  and  Ancestoi'-nforship. 

charged  with  the  duty  of  conducting  the  spirits  of  the  dead 
heavenward,  while  Yama  himself  was  not  so  much  the  god 
as  the  friend  of  departed  spirits.  He  was  looked  up  to  with 
veneration,  but  not  by  any  means  with  terror,  as  if  he  were 
the  god  of  punishment.     (Compare  p.  16  of  this  volume.) 

Turning  now  to  the  period  of  the  Epic  poems  and  Pura- 
nas,  we   find  Yama    developed    into   a    much   more    terrific 
being.     He  is  now  the  Judge  and  punisher  of  the  dead,  who 
sits   in  judgment    upon   them,  and,   so  to   speak,   holds   the 
keys  of  heaven  and  hell.    Hence  he  is  called  'the  Restrainer 
or  Punisher'  (Yama,  from  yam,  to  restrain),  or  '  the  King  of 
Justice'   (Dharma-raja),    or    simply   'Justice'   (Dharma),    or 
'the  Rod-bearer'  (Danda-dhara),  or  'Noose-bearer'  (Pasin). 
Sometimes  he  is  represented   as   acting  in  these  characters 
on  behalf  of  Rudra-Siva,  who  is  the  real  god  of  the  dead. 
Many  descriptions  of  his  appearance  may  be  found  in  the 
Epic  poems  and  Puranas.     There  he  is  usually  depicted  as 
grim  and   awe-imposing  in  aspect,  green   in  colour,  clothed 
in  red,  riding  on  a  buffalo,  and  holding  a  club  in  one  hand 
and  a   noose   in  the   other.     He   is   also   one   of   the   eight 
guardians  of  the  quarters  of  the  sky,  his  own  quarter  being 
the  South,  in  which  direction  in  some  region  of  the  lower 
world  and  somewhere  on  the  confines  of  the  places  of  tor- 
ment which  are  called  the  '  terrific  provinces'  of  his  kingdom 
(Vishnu-purana  H.  6)  are  his  city  and  palace  called  Yama- 
pura  and  Yama-sadana.     Between  the  earth  and  this  abode 
flows  the  terrible  river  Vciitaranl^  which  all  departed  spirits 
must  cross.    In  the  later  Puranas — and  especially  in  the  Garuda 
— Yama  is  generally  regarded   as  a  stern  and  terrible  god 
of  punishment  only.    He  is  a  kind  of  Hindu  Pluto  or  Minos, 
and   nothing  more.     But  there  is  this  noteworthy  inconsis- 
tency in  his    position,    that  although  he   is   the   Judge   ap- 
pointed to  punish  every  man  according  to  his  works,  he  has 

^  BaitaranI  (or  Vaitaranl)  is  the  name  of  a  river  in  Orissa  45  miles  N.E. 
of  Kuttack.     On  its  bank  is  a  shrine  called  '  Yama's  abode.' 


Death.  Funeral  Riles,  ami  Aneestor-u'orship.    29 1 

no  power  over,  those  devoted  worshippers  of  J^iva,  Vishnu, 
and  Krishna  who  have  Hvcd  virtuous  Hves,  and  who  when 
they  die  are  taken  out  of  his  hands  and  transported  to 
tlic  heavens  Kailasa,  Vaikuntha,  and  Go-loka  respectively'. 
Nor  has  lie  any  power  over  those  whose  death-beds  are 
protected  by  the  due  performance  of  all  the  requisite  cere- 
itionies  —  provided  only  that  sufficient  fees  have  been  paid 
to  the  Brfdimans  who  superintend  such  ceremonies. 

In  attempting,  therefore,  to  give  some  idea  of  the  present 
creed  of  the  Hindus  in  regard  to  death  and  a  future  state, 
it  will  be  necessary  to  begin  by  describing  the  career  and 
history  of  a  deceased  mortal  who,  from  his  evil  deeds  during 
life  or  from  some  defect  in  the  proper  ceremonies  at  his 
decease,  becomes  subject  to  Yama's  penalties. 

We  are  told  in  the  Garuda-purana  that  when  such  a  man 
dies  his  spirit  takes  a  downward  course  through  the  intes- 
tines and  emerges  in  the  same  manner  as  the  excreta  ; 
whereas— as  we  shall  see  in  the  sequel — the  spirit  of  a  good 
man  finds  its  way  through  the  tenth  aperture  of  the  body, 
which  is  a  suture  at  the  top  of  the  skull,  called  the  Brahma- 
randhram,  'Brahma's  crevice.' 

No  sooner  has  death  occurred  and  cremation  of  the  ter- 
restrial body  taken  place,  than  Yama's  two  messengers 
(Yama-dutau),  who  are  waiting  near  at  hand,  make  tlicm- 
selves  visible  to  the  released  spirit,  which  retains  its  subtle 
body  composed  of  the  subtle  elements,  and  is  said  to  be 
of  the  size  of  a  thumb  (aiigushtha-matra).  Their  aspect  is 
terrific ;  for  they  have  glaring  eyes,  hair  standing  erect, 
gnashing  teeth,  crow-black  skin,  and  claw-like  nails,  and 
they  hold  in  their  hands  the  awful  rod  and  noose  of  Yama. 
Then,  as  if  their  appearance  in  this  form  were  not  suffici- 
ently alarming,  they  proceed  to  terrify  their  victim  by  terrible 
visions  of  the  torments  (yatana)  in  store  for  him. 

^  'The  servants  and  ministers  of  Yama  and  his  tortures  are  unavailing 
against  one  who  places  his  rehance  in  \'ishnu.'     Vishnu-puriina  III.  7. 

U  2 


292    Death,  Funeral  Rites,  and  Ancestor-ivorsJiip. 

In  a  story  told  in  the  Vana-parva  of  the  Maha-bharata 
(16,754),  Yama  himself  appears  before  a  dying  man.  He  is 
clothed  in  blood-red  garments  with  a  glittering  crown  upon 
his  head,  and,  like  Varuna,  holds  a  noose  in  his  hand,  with 
which  he  binds  the  spirit  and  its  subtle  frame  after  drawing 
it  from  the  sick  man's  body. 

The  usual  theory,  however,  is  that  his  two  messenger^ 
perform  this  office.  They  then  convey  the  bound  spirit 
along  the  road  to  Yama's  abode.  There  being  led  before 
Yama's  judgment-seat  it  is  confronted  with  his  Registrar  or 
Recorder  named  Citra-gupta^.  This  officer  stands  by  Yama's 
side  with  an  open  book  before  him.  It  is  his  business  to 
note  down  all  the  good  and  evil  deeds  of  every  human  being 
born  into  the  world,  with  the  resulting  merit  (punya)  and 
demerit  (papa),  and  to  produce  a  debtor  and  creditor  account 
properly  made  up  and  balanced  on  the  day  when  that  being 
is  brought  before  Yama^.  According  to  the  balance  on  the 
side  of  merit  or  demerit  is  judgment  pronounced. 

Truly  the  prospect  of  so  terrible  an  ordeal  to  a  man  con- 
scious of  his  sins  might  appear  absolutely  unbearable,  were 
it  not  for  his  belief  in  the  doctrine  that  the  ceremonies  per- 
formed on  his  behalf  by  his  relations  after  his  death  have 
power,  if  properly  carried  out,  to  turn  the  scale  and  perhaps 
place  a  considerable  balance  to  his  credit. 

As  however  a  disembodied  spirit  can  neither  enjoy  heaven 
nor  suffer  the  pains  of  hell  until  reinvested  with  a  physical 
frame,  composed — as  already  pointed  out — of  gross  though 
ethereal  particles,  it  is  instantly  after  its  sentence  hurried 
back  to  the  place  of  cremation  ;  where  it  acquires  a  frame  of 
the  necessary  sensibility  by  feeding  on  the  oblations  of  rice 


^  It  is  remarkable  that  the  enterprising  and  intelligent  Writer  caste 
(Kayastha)  of  Bengal  claim  to  be  descended  from  a  Brahman,  named 
Citra-gupta  ;  and  secretaries  are  sometimes  called  by  that  name. 

-  Compare  Rev.  xx.  12,  'And  the  dead  were  judged  out  of  those  things 
which  were  written  in  the  books,  according  to  their  works,' 


DcatJi,  Funeral  Ritc<:,  and  Ancc^lor-'i>.'orsJi>.p.     29.'^ 

and  Jibations  of  water  offered  for  ten  consecutive  days  after 
the  burning  of  the  terrestrial  body '. 

On  the  first  day  the  ball  (Pinda)  of  rice  offered  by  the 
eldest  son  or  other  near  relative  nourishes  the  spirit  of  the 
deceased  in  such  a  way  as  to  furnish  it  with  a  head  ;  on 
the  second  day  the  offered  Pinda  gives  a  neck  and  shoulders ; 
on  the  third,  a  heart ;  on  the  fourth,  a  back  ;  on  the  fifth, 
a  navel ;  on  the  sixth,  a  groin,  and  the  parts  usually  con- 
cealed ;  on  the  seventh,  thighs ;  on  the  eighth  and  ninth, 
knees  and  feet.  On  the  tenth  day  the  intermediate  body 
is  sufficiently  formed  to  produce  the  sensation  of  hunger  and 
thirst.  Other  Pindas  are  therefore  put  before  it,  and  on  the 
eleventh  and  twelfth  day'  the  embodied  spirit  feeds  vora- 
ciously on  the  offerings  thus  supplied,  and  so  gains  strength 
for  its  journey  to  its  future  abode  (Garuda-purana  I.  51,  &c.). 
Then  on  the  thirteenth  day  after  death  it  is  conducted  either 
to  heaven  or  hell.  If  to  the  latter,  it  has  need  of  the  most 
nourishing  food  to  enable  it  to  bear  up  against  the  terrible 
ordeal  which  awaits  it. 

The  road  by  which  Yama's  two  officers  force  a  wicked  man 
to  descend  to  the  regions  of  torment  is  described  in  the  first 
two  chapters  of  the  Garuda-purana.  The  length  of  the  way 
is  said  to  be  86,000  leagues  (yojanas).  The  condemned 
soul,  invested  with  its  sensitive  body  and  made  to  travel 
at  the  rate  of  200  leagues  a  day,  finds  no  shady  trees,  no 
resting-place,  no  food,  no  water.  At  one  time  it  is  scorched 
by  a  burning  heat,  equal  to  that  of  twelve  meridian  suns,  at 
another  it  is  pierced  by  icy  cold  winds ;  now  its  tender  frame 
is  rent  by  thorns ;  now  it  is  attacked  by  lions,  tigers,  savage 
dogs,  venomous  serpents,  and  scorpions.     In  one  place  it  has 

^  This  frame  is  sometimes  called  '  the  upward-going  body '  (urdhva- 
deha),  whence  the  obsequial  ceremonies  that  produce  it  are  sometimes 
called  Aurdhva-dehikam.  Another  name  for  this  body  is  Adhishthana- 
deha  (see  p.  28). 

"-  In  some  parts  of  India  these  are  also  the  days  on  which  the  relations 
who  are  performing  the  funeral  rites  have  their  festive  dinners. 


294    DcatJi,  Funeral  Rites,  and  Ancestor-'wor ship. 

to  traverse  a  dense  forest  whose  leaves  are  swords;  in  another 
it  falls  into  deep  pits ;  in  another  it  is  precipitated  from 
precipices;  in  another  it  has  to  walk  on  the  edge  of  razors; 
in  another  on  iron  spikes ;  here  it  stumbles  about  helplessly 
in  profound  darkness ;  there  it  struggles  through  loathsome 
mud  swarming  with  leeches ;  here  it  toils  through  burning 
sand ;  there  its  progress  is  arrested  by  heaps  of  red-hot 
charcoal  and  stifling  smoke.  Compelled  to  pass  through 
every  obstacle,  however  formidable,  it  next  encounters  a 
succession  of  terrific  showers,  not  of  rain,  but  of  live  coals, 
stones,  blood,  boiling  water  and  filth.  Then  it  has  to  descend 
into  appalling  fissures,  or  ascend  to  sickening  heights,  or  lose 
itself  in  vast  caves,  or  wade  through  lakes  seething  with  fetid 
ordure.  Then  midway  it  has  to  pass  the  awful  river  VaitaranT, 
one  hundred  leagues  in  breadth,  of  unfathomable  depth ; 
flowing  with  irresistible  impetuosity,  filled  with  blood,  matter, 
hair,  and  bones ;  infested  with  huge  sharks,  crocodiles,  and 
sea-monsters ;  darkened  by  clouds  of  hideous  vultures  and 
obscene  birds  of  prey.  Thousands  of  condemned  spirits 
stand  trembling  on  the  banks,  horrified  by  the  prospect 
before  them.  Consumed  by  a  raging  thirst,  they  drink  the 
blood  which  flows  at  their  feet,  then  tumbling  headlong  into 
the  torrent  they  are  overwhelmed  by  the  rushing  waves. 
Finally^  they  are  hurried  down  to  the  lowest  depths  of  hell, 
and  yet  not  destroyed.  Pursued  by  Yama's  officers  they  are 
dragged  away  and  made  to  undergo  inconceivable  tortures, 
the  detail  of  which  is  given  with  the  utmost  minuteness  in 
the  succeeding  chapters  of  the  Garuda-purana. 

A  description  so  monstrous  would  be  scarcely  worth  repro- 
ducing in  any  form  did  it  not  profess  to  represent  an  im- 
portant article  of  the  creed  of  a  vast  majority  of  our 
fellow-subjects  in  regard  to  a  future  state.  It  might  indeed 
be  thought  that  a  belief  in  such  horrors,  and  in  the  possibility 
of  undergoing  a  fate  so  awful  would  be  calculated  to  produce 
a  salutary  deterrent  effect  on  wicked   persons,  did  we  not 


Death,  Funeral  Rites,  and  Anecstor-worship.    295 

find  that,  however  intense  is  a  Hindu's  belief  in  the  reality 
of  hell's  most  excruciating  torments  as  described  in  the 
Garuda  and  other  Puranas,  he  is  equally  ready  to  accept 
the  doctrine  laid  down  in  the  same  works,  that  by  performing 
certain  religious  rites  and  giving  gifts  to  the  Brahmans  all 
the  terrific  penalties  of  sin  may  be  avoided  and  the  god  of 
hell  disappointed  of  his  victims  (compare  p.  291,  first  line). 

What,  then,  is  the  nature  of  the  various  obsei-vances  and 
ceremonies  which  secure  this  immunity  from  future  punish- 
ment and  make  the  course  of  the  departed  spirit — however 
guilty — peaceful  and  pleasant?  We  can  only  give  an  outline 
of  some  of  those  most  usually  practised  in  religious  families 
of  the  higher  classes. 

In  the  first  place,  when  a  man  becomes  seriously  ill,  it  is 
common  for  his  relatives  to  assume  rather  prematurely  that 
his  case  is  hopeless.  They  therefore  make  preparations  for 
performing  the  last  offices  of  religion  in  anticipation  of  his 
decease  in  a  manner  which  to  us  Europeans  would  appear 
not  unlikely  to  hasten  on  the  crisis.  Perhaps  his  only  chance 
of  warding  off  the  approach  of  death  may  depend  on  perfect 
repose  of  body  and  mind.  Yet  how  can  his  kinsmen  allow 
him  to  run  the  risk  of  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  god  of 
punishment,  when  by  a  little  exertion  they  may  secure  for 
him  the  protection  of  the  sacred  river  which  flows  perhaps 
not  more  than  ten  miles  from  his  abode  ?  Hence,  his  eldest 
son  and  other  near  relatives  lose  no  time  in  placing  him  on 
a  litter  and  conveying  him  to  the  banks  of  the  nearest  holy 
stream.  If  such  a  river  as  the  Ganges  or  Narmada  or  Godfi- 
varT  or  Krishna  (Kistna)  happen  to  be  within  reach,  the 
relatives  of  the  dying  man  are  the  more  eager  to  bring  him 
into  close  proximity  to  the  sacred  waters.  At  Calcutta  this 
is  often  done  two  or  three  days  before  death  supervenes. 
According  to  Mr.  S.  C.  Pose,  'Persons  entrusted  with  the 
care  and  nursing  of  a  dying  man  at  the  burning-ghat  [on 
the  Ganges]  soon  get  tired  of  their  charge,  and  rather  than 


296    Death,  Funeral  Rites,  and  Anccstor-zvorship. 

administer  to  his  comfort,  are  known  to  resort  to  artificial 
means,  whereby  death  is  accelerated.  They  unscrupulously 
pour  the  unwholesome,  muddy  water  of  the  river  down  his 
already  choked  throat,  and  in  some  cases  suffocate  him  to 
death  \' 

Of  course  the  Ganges  is  of  all  rivers  held  to  be  the  most 
divine  and  the  most  potent  in  its  efficacy.  If  simply  looked 
upon  during  the  death-agony,  the  messengers  of  Yama,  who 
are  eager  to  seize  and  bind  the  soul,  are  powerless  to  harm  it. 

But  neither  the  Ganges  nor  any  other  sacred  stream  is 
always  to  be  reached.  In  such  cases  various  other  preventive 
measures  calculated  to  keep  the  officers  of  Yama  at  bay  or 
force  them  to  retire  may  be  resorted  to,  according  to  the 
practice  believed  to  be  most  efficacious  in  different  localities. 

For  example,  in  many  families  it  is  thought  enough  to 
scatter  Sesamum  seed  and  Kusa  grass  around  the  sick  man's 
couch  or  to  encircle  it  with  a  kind  of  cordon  of  cow-dung  ;  or 
a  Salagrama  stone  (see  p.  69)  is  brought  and  placed  on  a 
stand  close  to  the  dying  man's  side,  while  at  the  same  time 
a  Tulasi  plant  is  deposited  near  him.  Or  again,  a  sprig  of 
that  sacred  plant  is  wound  round  his  head ;  or  its  leaves  are 
placed  in  his  mouth  ^  ;  or  a  piece  of  gold  ^  is  inserted  between 
the  teeth  ;  or  a  little  mud  from  a  sacred  stream  may  be 
brought  from  a  distance  and  plastered  on  his  forehead  ;  or 
Ganges  water  may  be  poured  down  his  throat.  Then  not 
unfrequently  a  cow  duly  decorated  is  brought  close  to  the 
moribund  man's  bed,  and  he  is  made  to  grasp  its  tail,  under 

^  'The  Hindoos  as  they  are,'  p.  252. 

^  According  to  the  Garucla-purana  (IX.  7,  8),  'The  house  in  which 
there  is  a  single  sprig  of  the  Tulasi  is  like  a  holy  place  of  pilgrimage. 
Yama's  messengers  cannot  enter  it.  Yama  cannot  look  upon  the  man 
who  dies  with  the  TuIasT  in  contact  with  his  body,  even  though  he  may 
have  committed  hundreds  of  crimes.'  In  verse  11  the  same  efficacy  is 
ascribed  to  Kusa  grass,  which  is  said  to  be  pervaded  by  Brahma,  Vishnu, 
and  Siva. 

^  To  secure  the  presence  of  gold  in  the  mouth  at  death,  a  healthy  man 
will  sometimes  have  it  inserted  in  his  teeth. 


Death,  Funeral  Rites,  and  Ancestot'-worsJiip     297 

the  notion  that  by  the  sacred  animal's  assistance  he  will  be 
safely  transported  over  the  terrible  river  of  death,  VaitaranI, 
already  described.  This,  however,  is  a  precautionary  measure 
which  will  be  quite  ineffectual  unless  the  cow  is  afterwards 
handed  over  as  a  gift  to  the  Brfdimans. 

Others  again  who  believe  that  the  passage  of  the  Hindu 
Styx  is  compulsory  on  all,  and  that  it  cannot  be  accomplished 
without  direct  Brahmanical  aid,  take  care  to  send  for  two  or 
three  priests  for  the  performance  of  the  Vaitarani-rite.  This 
ceremony,  which  is  very  usual  in  Bengal,  consists  mainly  in 
paying  money  to  the  Brahmans,  who  in  return  mutter  a  few 
texts  and  prayers,  supposed  to  be  efficacious  in  helping  the 
deceased  man  across  the  dreaded  river. 

Of  course  Mantras  or  texts  from  the  Vedas  and  Upanishads 
are  repeated  during  all  the  ceremonies,  and  h)'mns  to  Vishnu 
and  Siva  are  occasionally  recited.  Then  at  the  last  moment 
the  dying  man  is  made  if  possible  to  repeat  the  Taraka-mantra 
or  'saving-text.'  This  formula  may  vary  according  to  the 
sect  to  which  the  family  belongs.  In  most  cases  it  consists 
in  merely  uttering  the  name  of  Rama,  or  Narayana,  or  Hari, 
or  the  eight-syllabled  Mantra, '  Blessed  Krishna  is  my  refuge.' 

When  the  moment  of  death  arrives  the  spirit  is  supposed 
to  escape,  invested  only  with  its  liriga-sarlra  (see  p.  2H), 
through  one  of  the  upper  or  lower  apertures  of  the  body\ 
according  to  the  character  for  good  or  evil  it  achieved  during 
life  (see  p.  291). 

The  corpse  has  now  to  be  transported  to  a  place  where  its 
cremation  may  be  accomplished  in  due  form  and  according 
to  prescribed  rules,  but  not  until  certain  other  rites  have  been 
performed.  And  first  the  eldest  son  or  his  nearest  repre- 
sentative carefully  shaves  the  body  -.     This  he  does  without 


'  The  seven  upper  apertures  are  the  mouth,  the  eyes,  the  nostrils,  and 
ears. 

^  This  is  according  to  the  directions  in  the  Garutla-purana.  At  Benares 
the  shaving  process  generally  takes  place  at  the  burning-ghat. 


298    Death,  Fiina'al  Rites,  and  Ancestor-tvorsJiip. 

removing  the  hair  from  under  the  arms  and  without  chpping 
the  nails.  Next  he  bathes  it  with  water  from  a  sacred 
stream  and  decorates  it  with  sandal-wood  and  garlands ;  or 
in  place  of  decoration  he  may  plaster  it  with  mud  from  the 
Ganges.  Then  it  is  covered  with  new  vestments  and  placed 
on  the  litter  ;  an  oblation  (Pinda)  being  offered  to  the  guardian 
deities  of  the  soil,  who  protect  the  road  to  the  burning- 
ground  from  the  attacks  of  evil  spirits.  At  the  same  time 
the  name  and  family  of  the  deceased  man  are.  pronounced 
by  his  son,  while  his  son's  wife  and  the  other  women  of  the 
household  reverently  circumambulate  the  corpse  and  utter 
lamentations.  The  body  is  now  ready  to  be  borne  to  the 
place  of  cremation,  which  ought,  if  possible,  to  be  near  a 
river  \  And  here  a  great  difficulty  has  sometimes  to  be 
overcome  in  finding  proper  persons  to  carry  the  dead  body. 
If  the  deceased  happens  to  be  a  Brahman,  four  men  of  his 
own  caste — and,  if  possible,  chosen  from  his  own  relations — 
ought  to  perform  this  office,  walking  behind  the  son,  who 
leads  the  funeral  procession,  holding  in  his  hand  an  earthen 
vessel  containing  fire.  Or,  according  to  the  Garuda-purana 
(X.  12),  the  son  himself  should  help  to  carry  the  corpse  on 
his  shoulder,  the  other  relatives  with  bare  heads  following 
in  the  rear. 

It  may  be  noted  here  that  the  rule  which  prevents  Brah- 
mans  from  touching  the  bodies  of  persons  of  inferior  caste  is 
often  a  cause  of  great  trouble  and  difficulty. 

Not  long  ago  a  very  respectable  man  of  the  Kayastha  caste 
died  in  Khandesh  at  a  place  where  no  male  members  of  his 
own  caste  lived.  The  body  had  to  be  burnt  immediately, 
but  no  one  of  superior  caste  could  be  induced  to  touch  it,  and 
had  any  one  of  a  lower  caste  done  so,  the  family  would  have 
suffered   irretrievable  degradation.     The  difficulty  was  only 

^  If  a  place  near  a  river  is  to  be  found  anywhere  within  ten  or  fifteen 
miles  of  the  dead  man's  residence  the  corpse  is  generally  carried  there, 
unless,  as  we  have  seen,  this  is  done  before  the  breath  leaves  the  body. 


Deaths  Funeral  Riles,  and  Ancestor-zvorsliip.    299 

surmounted  by  the  payment  of  an  exorbitant  sum  to  some 
Brfibmans  who  at  length  consented  to  bear  the  body  to  the 
burning-ground. 

This  explains  the  unwillingness  of  the  Hindus  to  leave 
their  own  country  and  caste. 

The  burning  of  the  corpse  is  the  next  act  in  the  drama. 

A  proper  spot  for  the  erection  of  the  funeral  pile  must  be 
chosen.  It  must  be  well  purified  by  the  sprinkling  of  holy 
water.  A  kind  of  altar  is  then  made  with  earth,  and  the 
Homa  ceremony  is  performed  by  casting  grain  into  the  sacred 
fire  with  the  due  repetition  of  IMantras.  Then  the  funeral 
pile  is  constructed  with  Tulasi  and  Palasa  and  sandal-wood. 
Five  Pindas  or  balls  of  rice  are  placed  on  the  deceased  man's 
body,  which  is  made  to  face  the  north,  and  the  eldest  son 
or  his  representative  applies  the  fire  to  the  wood,  reciting 
Rig-veda  X.  17.  3 — 'May  the  guardian  deity  Pushan  convey 
thee  hence  on  thy  distant  road  ;  may  he  deliver  thee  to  the 
Fathers  etc' 

Not  very  long  ago,  if  the  dead  man  had  a  faithful  wife 
(sati)  she  often  gave  proof  of  her  devotion  by  allowing  her 
living  body  to  be  burnt  with  her  husband's  corpse  ;  and  the 
Garuda-purana  is  profuse  in  its  eulogy  of  the  devoted  woman 
who  so  sacrifices  herself  and  thereby  secures  eternal  bliss  in 
heaven  for  herself  and  her  husband.  Sometimes  also  a 
widowed  mother  burnt  herself  with  the  body  of  an  only  son. 

When  the  body  is  half-burnt  the  skull  ought  to  be  cracked 
with  a  blow  from  a  piece  of  sacred  wood.  The  idea  is  that 
the  soul  may 'not  have  been  able  to  escape  through  the 
aperture  at  the  top  of  the  head,  and  that  the  cracking  of 
the  skull  may  open  a  crevice  and  facilitate  its  exit. 

In  the  case  of  the  death  of  a  holy  man  whose  body  is 
buried  and  not  burnt,  the  necessary  blow  is  given  with  a 
cocoa-nut  (sri-phala)  or  with  a  sacred  conch-shell  (saiikha). 

A  story  was  told  me  with  great  seriousness  of  a  sorcerer  at 
Lahore  who  made  it  the  business  of  his  life  to  make  a  collec- 


300     Death,  Funeral  Rites,  and  Ancestoi^-worsJiip. 

tion  of  the  skulls  of  dead  men  which  had  not  been  properly- 
cracked  in  this  manner  at  death  and  so  retained  the  spirits  of 
the  deceased  inside.  The  peasantry  in  the  neighbourhood 
fully  believed  that  he  was  able  to  make  use  of  these  spirits 
for  magical  purposes,  and  that  he  could  force  them  to  execute 
his  behests. 

During  the  process  of  cremation  an  oblation  of  clarified 
butter  ought  to  be  offered  in  the  fire  and  a  Mantra  repeated 
entreating  the  god  of  fire  to  convey  the  deceased  man  to 
heaven.  When  the  body  has  been  consumed  all  present  at 
the  funeral  bathe  or  purify  themselves  with  ablutions.  Sesa- 
mum  and  water  are  then  offered  while  the  name  and  family 
of  the  deceased  are  again  repeated. 

Finally,  a  few  leaves  of  the  Nimba-tree  (Nlm)  are  chewed 
by  all  and  the  funeral  procession  returns  home,  the  women 
walking  first  and  the  men  behind.  Meanwhile  the  pyre  and  the 
products  of  combustion  are  left  undisturbed  to  a  future  day. 

The  Garuda-purana  directs  that  if  a  man  dies  in  a  remote 
place,  or  is  killed  by  robbers  in  a  forest  and  his  body  is  not 
found,  his  son  should  make  an  ^^^y  of  the  deceased  with 
Kusa  grass  and  then  burn  it  on  a  funeral  pile  with  similar 
ceremonies. 

On  the  fourth  day  after  cremation  the  relatives  return  to 
the  burying-ground,  and  assembling  at  the  pyre  perform  the 
'bone-gathering'  (asthi-sanc'aya)  ceremony.  Three  circum- 
ambulations  are  made  around  the  ashes  and  a  Mantra  from 
the  Yajur-veda  (beginning  Yamaya  tva,  XXXVIII.  9)  is  re- 
peated. The  calcined  bones  are  then  placed  in  a  kind  of 
urn  or  earthen  vessel ;  a  cavity  is  dug  in  the  ground  and  the 
vessel  deposited  in  it.  Next  a  Pinda  is  offered  over  the  ashes 
for  the  removal  of  the  suffering  supposed  to  have  been  caused 
by  the  act  of  cremation.  Then  after  a  few  days  the  vessel 
is  removed  from  the  cavity  in  order  that  the  ashes  and  bones 
may  be  carried  away  and  thrown  into  some  sacred  river — if 
possible   the    Ganges.     'Whatever   sins,'   says   the    Garuda- 


Death,  Funeral  Rites,  and  Anccstor-ii^orship.     301 

purana  (X.  84),  'a  man  may  have  committed  during  life,  if 
his  bones  arc  cast  into  the  Ganges  he  must  certainly  go 
to  heaven.' 

In  illustration  of  this  a  story  is  related  in  the  same  Purana 
of  a  certain  hunter,  notorious  for  his  crimes,  who  was  killed 
by  a  tiger  in  an  inaccessible  corner  of  a  forest.  There  his 
body  lay  for  many  years  and  his  disembodied  spirit"  became 
a  troublesome  devil  (compare  p.  239),  till  fortunately  the 
bleached  skeleton  was  spied  by  a  crow,  who  picking  up  bone 
after  bone  dropped  it  into  the  Ganges.  Whereupon  the 
demon  was  suddenly  converted  into  a  saint,  and  transported 
in  a  celestial  chariot  to  the  mansions  of  the  blessed.  This 
story  is  narrated  with  all  seriousness  by  the  author  of  the 
Purana  as  if  he  were  recording  an  historical  fact. 

In  connexion  with  the  same  subject  I  may  repeat  an 
anecdote  told  me  by  a  late  member  of  the  Indian  Civil 
Service — once  a  Magistrate  and  Collector  in  North-western 
India.  He  was  once  on  a  tour  of  inspection  through  his 
district  when  he  overtook  a  poor  old  woman  trudging  along 
the  road  with  evident  difficulty.  He  inquired  in  a  kindly 
voice  where  she  was  going.  '  To  the  Ganges  with  my  husband,' 
was  the  prompt  reply.  Involuntarily  the  Magistrate  looked 
back,  expecting  to  see  some  old  man  following  her,  when 
she  calmly  opened  a  handkerchief  which  she  had  been  carrying 
slung  over  her  shoulder  and  showed  him  all  that  remained 
of  her  defunct  lord  and  master  in  the  shape  of  a  few  half- 
calcined  bones,  an  old  tooth  or  two,  and  a  little  dust  and 
ashes.  These  she  was  transporting  to  the  river  with  the  pious 
object  of  scattering  them  on  the  sacred  waters. 

I  may  also  put  on  record  how  greatly  struck  I  was  with 
the  peaceful  aspect  of  a  spot  of  ground  called  the  Asthi- 
vilaya-tlrtham,  'sacred  place  for  the  dissolution  of  bones,' 
at  Nasik — the  Benares  of  Western  India.  There  surrounded 
by  trees,  temples,  and  lovely  scenery  is  a  consecrated  pool, 
formed  by  the  waters  of  the  Godavarl,  which  are  here  par- 


302     Death,  1  .,,ucral  Rites,  and  A Jicestoj'-worskip. 

tially  diverted  from  their  course  and  made  to  flow  into  a 
receptacle  lined  with  stone  in  a  secluded  bend  of  the  river. 
This  is  the  cemetery  or  '  sleeping-place '  of  myriads  of  human 
beings  whose  ashes  are  brought  at  particular  holy  seasons 
and  scattered  on  the  tranquil  waters. 

I  was  also  much  impressed  by  the  singularity  of  a  '  bone- 
gathering  ceremony'  I  witnessed  in  the  Hindu  burning- 
ground  at  Bombay.  On  the  morning  of  one  of  my  visits  to 
that  place  twenty-four  men  were  gathered  round  the  ashes  of 
a  man  whose  body  had  been  burnt  two  or  three  days  before. 
The  ceremony  commenced  by  one  of  their  number  examining 
the  ashes  and  carefully  separating  any  portions  of  the  bones 
that  had  not  been  calcined  by  the  flames  on  the  previous 
day.  These  he  collected  in  his  hands  and  carried  outside  the 
burning-ground,  with  the  intention,  I  was  told,  of  throwing 
them  into  the  sea  near  at  hand.  This  being  doncj  the  whole 
party  gathered  round  the  ashes  of  the  pyre  in  a  semicircle, 
and  one  of  the  twenty-four  men  sprinkled  them  with  water. 
Then  some  cow-dung  was  carefully  spread  in  the  centre  of 
the  ashes  so  as  to  form  a  flat  circular  cake  of  rather  more 
than  a  foot  in  diameter,  around  which  a  stream  of  cow's  urine 
was  poured  from  a  metal  vessel.  Next,  one  of  the  men 
brought  a  plantain-leaf,  and  laid  it  on  the  circle  of  cow-dung 
so  as  to  form  a  kind  of  dish  or  plate.  Around  the  edge  of 
the  leaf  were  placed  five  round  balls  (Pindas),  probably  of 
rice-flower,  rather  smaller  than  cricket-balls,  mixed  with  some 
brown  substance.  Sprigs  of  the  Tulsl  plant  and  fresh  leaves 
of  the  betel,  with  a  few  flowers,  were  inserted  in  each  ball, 
and  a  coloured  cotton  cord  loosely  suspended  between  them. 
Next,  one  of  the  relations  covered  the  five  Pindas  with  the 
red  powder  called  gulal.  Ther^  five  flat  wheaten  cakes  were 
placed  on  the  plantain-leaf  inside  the  circle  of  the  five  Pindas, 
and  boiled  rice  was  piled  up  on  the  cakes,  surmounted  by  a 
small  piece  of  ghl  mixed  with  brown  sugar. 

The   ceremony  being  so  far  completed,  the  son  or  next 


Sraddha   Ccrcino7ues,  303 

nearest  relative  took  an  empty  earthenware  vase,  filled  it  with 
water,  and  held  it  on  his  rit;ht  shoulder.  Starting  from  the 
north  side  he  commenced  circumambulating  the  five  Pindas 
and  the  five  wheaten  cakes,  keeping  his  left  shoulder  towards 
them,  while  one  of  the  relatives  with  a  sharp  stone  made  a 
hole  in  the  jar,  whence  the  water  spouted  out  in  a  stream  as 
he  walked  round.  On  completing  the  first  circuit  and  coming 
back  to  the  north,  a  second  incision  was  made  with  the  same 
stone,  whence  a  second  stream  poured  out  simultaneously 
with  the  first.  At  the  end  of  the  fifth  round,  when  five 
streams  of  water  had  been  made  to  spout  out  from  five  holes 
round  the  five  Pindas,  the  earthenware  vase  was  dashed  to 
the  ground  on  the  north  side,  and  the  remaining  water  spilt 
over  the  ashes.  Next,  one  of  the  relatives  took  a  small 
metal  vessel  containing  milk,  and,  with  a  betel-leaf  for  a 
ladle,  sprinkled  some  drops  over  the  rice  piled  on  the 
wheaten  cakes.  After  which,  taking  some  water  from  a  small 
lota — or  rather  making  another  relative  pour  it  into  his  hand 
— he  first  sprinkled  it  in  a  circle  round  the  Pindas,  and  then 
over  the  cakes.  Finally,  bending  down  and  raising  his  hands 
to  his  head,  he  performed  a  sort  of  pilja  to  the  Pindas,  which 
were  supposed  to  represent  the  deceased  man  and  four  other 
relations.  This  was  repeated  by  all  twenty-four  men  in  turn. 
After  the  completion  of  the  ceremony,  the  balls  and  cakes 
were  left  to  be  eaten  by  animals.  This  may  be  said  to  close 
the  funeral  rites  proper. 

Sraddha  Ceremonies. 

The  Sraddha  ceremonies,  as  we  have  seen  (p.  285),  have 
many  points  in  common  with  the  antecedent  funeral  ob- 
sequies (antyeshti),  especially  in  the  nature  of  the  oblations 
offered  and  texts  repeated,  but  the  balls  of  rice,  etc.  (Pindas) 
are  said  to  represent  the  deified  bodies  of  the  Pitns. 

According  to  the  Nirnaya-sindhu  a  Sraddha  is  a  gift  given 


304  Sraddha  Cci'emomcs. 

to  the  Pitris,  offered  with  faith  (Sraddha)  and  with  some 
auspicious  exclamation  (such  as  svadJui  ^),  and  followed  "by 
gifts  to  the  Brahmans  (compare  p.  287). 

In  point  of  fact  Sraddhas  are  intended  both  as  acts  of 
homage  and  as  means  of  ministering  to  the  welfare  of  those 
deceased  relatives  who  through  the  efficacy  of  the  previous 
funeral  rites  have  become  invested  with  ethereal  bodies 
(divya-deha)  and  admitted  to  take  their  place  among  the 
Pitris  or  divine  Fathers  in  the  abode  of  bliss.  And  the 
Sraddhas  do  this,  not  so  much  by  supplying  them  with  nutri- 
ment in  the  balls  of  rice,  cakes  of  meal,  and  water  offered  2,  as 
by  accumulating  merit  (punya)  for  them  and  so  accelerating 
their  progress  through  heaven  to  future  births  and  final  union 
with  the  Supreme.  And  this  accumulation  of  merit  is  mainly 
accomplished  by  feasting  and  feeing  the  Brahmans,  who  are 
held  for  the  time  to  represent  the  Pitris,  the  idea  being  that 
whatever  nourishes  and  benefits  the  Brahmans,  nourishes  and 
benefits  the  Pitris. 

But  a  Sraddha  is  also  performed  on  one's  own  account. 
Propitiation  and  gratification  of  the  Manes  are  acts  fraught 
with  reflex  benefits  to  any  one  who  performs  them  properly, 
and  may  become  a  means  of  storing  up  merit  or  procuring 
some  advantage  for  himself  and  his  family.  Probably  this  is 
the  main  idea  in  the  minds  of  those  who  go  through  some  of 
the  ceremonies  so  earnestly. 

Nor  is  a  Sraddha  by  any  means  necessarily  connected  with 
funerals.  It  may  be  performed  every  day,  and  especially  on 
various  occasions  of  rejoicing.  According  to  the  Vishnu- 
purana  (III.  13),  'A  householder  should  worship  the  Pitris  at 

^  Requiring  the  dative  case  of  the  object  to  which  the  oblation  is 
offered.  Other  similar  exclamations  are  svaha,  sraushat,  vaushat. 
Svadha  is  also  a  name  for  the  oblation  or  for  its  personification. 

^  Yet  it  is  true,  as  before  seen,  that  Manu  and  others  make  the  Pitris 
actually  feed  on  the  essence  of  the  offerings.  In  the  same  way  it  is  said 
that  in  Europe  in  ancient  times  asphodels  were  planted  near  groves 
to  supply  the  Manes  of  the  dead  with  nourishment. 


Srdddha  Ceremonies.  305 

the  marriage  of  a  son  or  daughter,  on  entering  a  new 
dwelling,  on  naming  a  child,  on  performing  tonsure,  on  seeing 
the  face  of  a  son/ 

It  is  on  this  account  that  the  Nirnaya-sindhu  distinguishes 
Sraddhas  under  twelve  heads,  as  follows  : — 

I.  Nitya,  'daily,'  'constant,'  consisting  of  offerings  of  water 
to  ancestors  generally  at  the  daily  morning  and  evening 
prayers  called  Sandhya.  This  cannot  be  performed  vica- 
riously, but  only  by  every  man  in  his  own  person, 

a.  Naimittika,  '  special,'  performed  on  special  occasions  as 
at  funerals,  and  having  reference  to  one  person  (ekoddish- 
tam)  recently  deceased.  An  odd  number  of  Brfdimans  (for 
instance,  one,  three,  five,  etc.)  are  to  be  feasted  at  the  close  of 
the  rite.  In  contradistinction  to  Nitya,  Naimittika  cere- 
monies admit  of  being  performed  through  a  deputy  or  repre- 
sentative. 

3.  Kamya,  'voluntary,'  performed  for  the  accomplishment  of 
some  desired  object ;  as,  for  instance,  the  obtaining  of  a  son. 

4.  Vriddhi-Sraddha,  'for  the  increase  of  prosperity.' 

5.  Sapindana,  'for  the  benefit  of  all  kinsmen  who  are 
Sapindas,'  that  is,  connected  by  the  offering  of  the  Pinda. 
This  may  be  performed  by  a  woman. 

6.  Parvana,  'performed  at  the  conjunction  of  sun  and 
moon,'  that  is,  at  new  moon  and  at  other  periods  of  the 
moon's  changes. 

7.  Goshthl-Sraddha,  'performed  at  any  large  assembly  or 
family  gathering.' 

8.  Suddhy-artha,  'for  the  sake  of  purification,'  and  con- 
sisting mainly  in  the  feeding  of  a  certain  number  of  Brahmans, 
as  representatives  of  the  Pitris. 

9.  Karmahga,  '  performed  at  certain  Sanskara  rites.' 

10.  Daivika,  'on  behalf  of  the  gods,'  especially  the  Visve 
devah,  or  '  deities  collectively.' 

II.  Yatrartha,  'for  success'  on  undertaking  a  journey. 
12.  Pushty-artha,  'for  health  and  well-being  of  body." 

X 


3o6  Sraddka  Ceye77ionies. 

Other  forms  of  Sraddha  fell  under  my  observation  while 
I  was  in  India ;  for  example,  one  called  Hiranya- Sraddha, 
'gold  Sraddha,'  is  performed  by  giving  money  to  a  Brahman, 
when  no  Brahman  can  be  found  who  wishes  to  be  fed  with 
cooked  food. 

Again,  Darbha-Sraddha  is  where,  in  the  absence  of 
Brahmans  as  representatives  of  the  Pitris,  an  ^^gy  of  a 
Brahman  is  made  with  Kusa  grass  and  worship  offered  to  it. 

Of  all  these  Sraddhas,  that  performed  for  a  parent  recently 
deceased  (and  therefore  falling  under  the  class  Naimittika 
and  called  Ekoddishta,  '  directed  towards  one  person ')  is  the 
most  interesting,  as  it  is  the  only  one  accompanied  with 
elaborate  ceremonial,  costly  gifts,  and  festivities.  It  must 
not  be  deferred  too  long  after  the  termination  of  the  funeral 
proper,  and  must  in  all  cases  take  place  before  the  end  of 
the  first  month  after  death.  It  ought  to  be  performed  by  a 
son  and  repeated  in  a  simple  form  every  succeeding  month 
for  a  year  \  and  again  at  every  anniversary. 

In  Bengal,  according  to  Mr.  S.  C.  Bose^,  a  son  from  the 
hour  of  his  father's  death  to  the  conclusion  of  the  funeral 
ceremony  is  religiously  forbidden  to  shave,  wear  shoes,  shirts, 
or  any  garment  other  than  the  piece  of  white  cloth,  his  food 
being  confined  to  a  single  meal  consisting  of  rice,  pulse,  milk, 
ghee,  sugar,  and  a  few  fruits.  A  Brahman  must  continue  this 
course  of  fasting  for  ten  days  ^. 

Then  fifteen  or  sixteen  days  after  the  demise  of  his  father 
the  son  makes  preparation  for  the  approaching  Sraddha. 
About  the  twentieth  day  he  walks  barefoot  to  the  house  of 
each  of  his  relations  to  announce  that  the  Sraddha  is  to  take 


^  So  in  Ireland  a  mass  for  the  dead  is  celebrated  one  month  after  death. 

"^  See  'The  Hindoos  as  they  are,'  pp.  254-257. 

^  According  to  the  Vishnu-purana,  the  time  of  mourning  and  impurity 
is,  for  a  Brahman,  ten  days  ;  for  a  Kshatriya,  twelve  ;  for  a  Vaisya, 
fourteen  ;  for  a  Sudra,  a  whole  month  or  thirty-one  days.  The  higher 
the  caste  the  less  the  inconvenience  imposed. 


Sraddlia  Ceremonies,  307 

place  on  the  thirty-first  day  after  death.  On  the  lliirtieth  day, 
the  son  and  other  near  relatives  shave,  cut  their  nails,  and  put 
on  new  clothes,  giving  the  old  to  the  barber.  Invitations 
are  sent  round  to  the  Brfdimans  and  Pandits  requesting  their 
presence  at  the  feast.  On  the  thirty-first  day,  early  in  the 
morning,  the  son,  accompanied  by  the  officiating  priest,  goes 
to  the  river-side,  bathes,  and  performs  certain  preliminary 
rites.  A  quantity  of  silver  and  brass  utensils,  besides  shawls, 
cloth,  and  hard  silver  in  cash  are  required  for  the  ceremony 
and  to  serve  as  gifts  for  the  Brahmans,  Pandits,  and  other 
guests.  From  eight  in  the  morning  to  two  in  the  afternoon 
the  house  is  crammed  to  suffocation.  The  guests  arrive  early, 
and  are  asked  to  take  their  seats  according  to  their  caste. 
About  ten  o'clock  the  son  begins  the  rite  ;  the  officiating  priest 
reciting  the  formularies  (which  ought  to  include  Pitri-suktas 
from  the  Sama-veda),  and  he  repeating  them.  Meanwhile 
female  singers  of  questionable  character  entertain  the  guests 
with  their  songs,  while  garlands  and  sandal-paste  are  dis- 
tributed. 

About  one  in  the  afternoon  the  ceremony  is  brought  to  a 
close  by  the  Brahmans  and  Pandits  receiving  their  customary 
gifts.  The  first  in  the  list  gets,  in  ordinary  cases,  about  five 
rupees  in  cash,  and  one  brass  vessel  valued  at  four  or  five 
rupees;  the  second,  third,  and  others  in  proportion.  The 
Guru  or  religious  teacher  and  the  Purohita  or  officiating 
priest  carry  off  the  lion's  share. 

On  the  following  day,  according  to  Mr.  Bose,  an  entertain- 
ment is  given  to  the  Brahmans,  and  until  this  is  done  no 
Hindu  can  be  released  from  the  restrictions  of  mourning,  nor 
regain  his  former  purity.  About  twelve,  the  guests  begin  to 
assemble,  and  when  the  number  reaches  two  or  three 
hundred,  seats  of  Kusa  grass  in  long  rows  are  arranged  for 
them,  and  each  man  receives  a  plantain  leaf  on  which  are 
placed  fruits  and  sweetmeats,  such  as  *  ghee-fried  loochees' 
and  other  delicacies,  besides  various  kinds  of  confectionery  in 

X  2 


3o8  Srdddha  Cerc^nonies. 

earthen  plates.  Every  Brahman  before  leaving  the  house  is 
presented  with  a  money  gift  (dakshina)  of  one  or  two  annas. 

The  next  day,  a  similar  entertainment  with  similar  gifts  is 
given  to  Kayasthas  and  members  of  inferior  classes. 

And  here  it  may  be  noted  that  time  and  place  are  im- 
portant factors  in  the  due  performance  of  Sraddhas.  As  to 
time,  the  month  Bhadra — from  the  middle  of  August  to  the 
middle  of  September — and  especially  the  Pitri-paksha  (Pitri 
fortnight)  in  that  month  or  in  the  beginning  of  Asvina,  are 
believed  to  be  the  most  auspicious  seasons  for  Sraddhas. 

As  to  locality,  the  banks  of  sacred  streams  or  pools,  and 
places  consecrated  by  the  footsteps  of  Vishnu,  are  sought  for 
as  the  most  favourable  spots.  Sraddhas  are  also  performed 
in  cow-houses.  No  place  can  surpass  in  suitability  the 
neighbourhood  of  some  of  the  holy  tanks  at  Benares,  except 
it  be  the  temple  built  over  the  footstep  of  Vishnu  at  Gaya, 
which  is  more  frequented  than  any  other  spot  in  India  for 
the  performance  of  particular  Sraddhas. 

At  Benares  on  the  Ghat  near  the  pool  of  Mani-karnika,  on 
the  day  I  visited  it,  a  man  was  performing  a  Sraddha  for  his 
mother.  The  officiating  Brahman  began  by  forming  a 
slightly  elevated  piece  of  ground  with  some  sand  lying  near 
at  hand.  This  was  supposed  to  constitute  a  small  altar 
(vedi).  It  was  of  an  oblong  form,  but  not  more  than  ten 
inches  long  by  four  or  five  broad.  Across  this  raised  sand  he 
laid  three  stalks  of  Kusa  grass.  Then  taking  a  number  of 
little  earthenware  platters  or  saucers,  he  arranged  them  round 
the  sand,  putting  tila  or  sesamum  seed  in  one,  rice  in  another, 
honey  in  a  third,  areca  or  betel-nut  in  a  fourth,  chandana  or 
sandal  in  a  fifth.  Next,  he  took  flour  of  wheat  or  barley  and 
kneaded  it  into  one  large  Pinda,  rather  smaller  than  a 
cricket-ball,  which  he  carefully  deposited  in  the  centre  of  the 
sand-altar,  scattering  over  it  jasmine  flowers,  khaskhas  grass, 
and  wool,  and  placing  on  one  side  of  it  a  betel-leaf  with 
areca-nut  and  a  single  copper  coin.     Then  having  poured 


Sradd/ia  Ceremonies.  309 

water  from  a  lota  into  his  hand,  he  sprinkled  it  over  all  the 
ofiferings,  arranged  in  the  manner  described.  Other  similar 
operations  followed : — thus,  for  instance,  an  earthenware 
platter,  containing  a  lighted  wick,  was  placed  near  the 
offerings ;  ten  other  platters  were  filled  with  water,  which 
was  all  poured  over  the  Pinda ;  another  small  platter  with 
a  lighted  wick  was  added  to  the  first,  then  some  milk  was 
placed  in  another  platter  and  poured  over  the  Pinda,  and  then 
once  more  the  Pinda  was  sprinkled  with  water.  Finall)-,  the 
Brahman  joined  his  hands  together  and  did  homage  to  the 
Pinda.  The  whole  rite  did  not  last  more  than  fifteen 
minutes,  and  while  it  was  proceeding,  the  man  for  whose 
mother  it  was  performed  continued  to  repeat  Mantras  and 
prayers  under  the  direction  of  the  officiating  Brahman,  quite 
regardless  of  my  presence  and  much  loud  talking  and  vocife- 
ration going  on  around  him.  The  ceremony  was  concluded 
by  the  '  feeding  of  a  Brahman,'  who  was  sent  for  and  made 
to  sit  down  near  the  oblations,  and  fed  with  flat  cakes,  ghee, 
sweetmeats,  vegetables,  and  curds  placed  in  a  plate  of  palasa- 
1  caves. 

With  regard  to  Gaya,  which  I  visited  in  1876,  I  may 
mention  that  the  city  is  most  picturesquely  situated  on 
the  river  Phalgu,  about  sixty  miles  south-west  of  Patna, 
near  some  short  ranges  of  hills  rising  abruptly  out  of  the 
plain.  The  Vishnu-pada  temple,  where  the  principal  Sraddhas 
are  performed,  is  built  of  black  stone,  with  a  lofty  dome  and 
golden  pinnacle.  It  contains  the  alleged  footprint  of  Vishnu 
in  a  large  silver  basin,  under  a  silver  canopy,  inside  an 
octagonal  shrine.  Pindas  and  various  kinds  of  offerings  are 
placed  by  the  pilgrims  inside  the  basin  round  the  footprint, 
and  near  it  are  open  colonnades  for  the  performance  of  the 
Sraddhas. 

Let  no  one  suppose  that  the  process  of  performing 
Sraddhas  at  Gaya  is  either  simple  or  rapid.  To  secure  the 
complete  efficacy  of  such  rites,  a  whole  round  of  them  must 


3IO  Sraddha  Ccrc7non{es. 

be  performed  at  about  a  hundred  distinct  places  in  and 
around  Gaya,  as  well  as  at  the  most  holy  spot  of  all — the 
Vishnu-pada  temple — the  time  occupied  in  the  process  being  at 
least  eight  days,  and  sometimes  protracted  to  fifteen,  while  the 
sums  spent  in  fees  to  the  officiating  priests  (who  at  Gaya  are 
called  Gayawals,  abbreviated  into  Gaywals  =  Gaya-palas,  re- 
garded as  an  inferior  order  of  Brahmans)  are  often  enormous. 

The  efficacy  of  Sraddhas  performed  at  Gaya  is  this,  that 
wherever  in  their  progress  onwards  departed  relatives  may 
have  arrived,  the  Sraddhas  take  them  without  further  im- 
pediment or  delay  to  Vishnu's  heaven  (Vaikuntha). 

One  or  two  examples  witnessed  by  me  will  suffice.  A 
party  consisting  of  six  men  and  one  Gaywal  entered  one  of 
the  colonnades  of  the  temple  and  seated  themselves  on  their 
heels  in  a  line,  with  the  officiating  priest  at  their  head. 
Twelve  Pindas  were  formed  of  rice  and  milk,  not  much  larger 
than  the  large  marbles  used  by  boys  (called  '  alleys  ').  They 
were  placed  with  sprigs  of  the  sacred  Tulasi  plant  in  small 
earthenware  platters.  Then  on  the  top  of  the  Pindas  were 
scattered  Kusa  grass  and  flowers.  I  was  told  that  the 
Pindas  in  the  present  case  were  typical  of  the  bodies  of  the 
twelve  ancestors  for  whom  the  Sraddha  was  celebrated.  The 
men  had  Kusa  grass  twisted  round  their  fingers,  to  purify 
their  hands  for  the  due  performance  of  the  rite.  Next,  water 
was  poured  into  the  palms,  part  of  which  they  sprinkled  on 
the  ground,  and  part  on  the  Pindas.  One  or  two  of  the  men 
then  took  threads  off  their  clothes  and  laid  them  on  the 
Pindas.  This  act  is  alleged  to  be  emblematical  of  presenting 
the  bodies  of  their  departed  ancestors  with  garments. 

Meanwhile  texts  and  prayers  were  repeated,  under  the 
direction  of  the  Gaywal,  and  the  hands  were  sometimes  ex- 
tended over  the  Pindas  as  if  to  invoke  blessings.  The  whole 
rite  was  concluded  by  the  men  putting  their  heads  to  the 
ground  before  the  officiating  Brahman  and  touching  his  feet. 

The  number  of  Pindas  varies  with  the  number  of  ancestors 


Sradd/ici  Ccrauonics. 


7.\  I 


for  whom  the  Sraddhas  arc  celebrated,  and  the  size  of  the 
balls  and  the  materials  of  which  they  arc  composed  differ 
according  to  the  caste  and  the  country  of  those  who  perform 
the  rite.  I  saw  one  party  in  the  act  of  forming  fourteen 
or  fifteen  Pindas  with  meal,  which  were  of  a  much  larger 
size  than  large  marbles.  This  party  was  said  to  have  come 
from  the  Dekhan.  Sometimes  the  Pindas  were  placed  on 
betel-leaves  with  pieces  of  money,  which  were  afterwards 
appropriated  by  the  priests ;  and  sometimes  the  water  used 
was  taken  out  of  little  pots  by  dipping  stalks  of  Kusa  grass 
into  the  fluid  and  sprinkling  it  over  the  balls.  At  the  end  of 
all  the  ceremonies  a  prayer  was  said  for  pardon  lest  any 
minute  part  of  the  ceremonial  had  been  unintentionally 
omitted.  Then  finally  all  the  earthen  platters  employed 
were  carried  to  a  particular  stone  in  the  precincts  of  the 
temple  and  dashed  to  pieces  there.  No  platter  is  allowed  to 
be  used  a  second  time.  The  Pindas  are  left  to  be  eaten  by 
birds  and  other  animals,  or  reverently  deposited  in  the  river. 

It  is  remarkable  that  some  of  the  ablest  and  most  en- 
lightened men  of  India  are  unable  to  resist  the  impulse  which 
takes  every  Hindu  once  in  his  life,  if  possible,  to  both 
Benares  and  Gaya,  though  they  are  perfectly  aware  that  from 
the  moment  of  their  arrival  within  ten  miles  of  these  sacred 
localities  they  are  certain  to  become  the  prey  of  a  well- 
organized  army  of  rapacious  priests.  Mr.  Deshmukh  ^  gave 
me  a  brief  account  of  his  visit  to  Gaya  in  1876.  He  went 
there,  like  others  of  his  fellow-countrymen,  with  the  object  of 
performing  some  of  the  Sraddha  ceremonies. 

He  is  a  Cit-pavan  Brahman  (see  note,  p.  270),  and  gene- 
rally opposed  to  all  superstitious  practices,  yet  he  thinks  it 
right  to  maintain  his  influence  by  conforming,  as  far  as 
practicable,  to  old  customs.     Starting  from  Patna  he  had  to 

^  I  mean  the  Hon.  G.  H.  Deshmukh,  who  was  then  judge  at  Nasik, 
and  whom  I  have  often  quoted  before.  The  Government,  in  recognition 
of  his  services,  has  conferred  on  him  the  personal  title  of  Rao  Bahadur. 


312  Srdddha  Ceremonies. 

go  through  the  ceremony  of  shaving  (Kshaura)  at  a  river 
called  Punah-punah,  about  ten  miles  distant  on  the  road. 
On  reaching  Ga)'a  he  was  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  thousands 
of  persons  offering  Pindas,  some  of  whom  were  persons 
of  high  rank — Rajas  and  Maharajas,  on  their  way  to  the 
great  imperial  assemblage  at  Delhi.  Many  went  through  the 
entire  round  of  ritual  observances,  necessitating  the  perform- 
ance of  at  least  a  hundred  Sraddhas  at  different  shrines. 
Mr.  Deshmukh  had  to  tell  the  Gaywal  priests  that  he  was 
expected  in  a  few  days  at  Delhi,  and  had  little  time  to  spare 
for  Gaya.  He  was  therefore  allowed  to  dispense  with  all  but 
three  ceremonies.  These  were — i.  the  Phalgu-Sraddha,  per- 
formed on  the  banks  of  the  river  ;  2.  the  Vishnu-pada-Sraddha, 
at  the  temple  containing  Vishnu's  footprint ;  and  3-  Vata- 
Sraddha,  performed  under  a  Banian  tree.  Two  whole  days 
were  occupied  in  going  through  the  necessary  ritual  of  these 
Sraddhas,  which  was  most  elaborate  and  tedious,  and  the 
fees  were  of  course  proportionately  large.  The  Maharaja  of 
Kashmir,  who  visited  Gaya  in  the  same  year  and  stayed 
rather  longer  than  Mr.  Deshmukh,  is  said  to  have  expended 
at  least  15,000  rupees  on  the  Gaywal  priests  before  their 
demands  were  satisfied. 

I  must  confess  that  I  myself  came  away  from  the  Vishnu- 
pada  temple  profoundly  impressed  by  the  solemnity  and 
earnestness  of  manner  displayed  by  some  of  the  worshippers, 
their  unfaltering  faith  in  the  efificacy  of  the  acts  in  which  they 
Avere  engaged,  and  their  intense  anxiety  to  carry  out  every 
tittle  and  iota  of  the  ceremonial  in  obedience  to  the  directions 
of  their  priestly  guides. 


CHAPTER    XII. 

Worship  of  Animal s.  Trees,  and  Inanimate  Objects. 

Sir  John  Lubbock  in  his  work  on  the  '  Origin  of  Civiliza- 
tion '  has  some  interesting  remarks  on  the  subject  of  animal- 
worship,  and  shows  that  zoolatry  has  always  prevailed  among 
uncivilized  and  half-civilized  races  in  every  part  of  the  globe. 
Mr.  E.  B.  Tylor  in  the  second  volume  of  his  '  Primitive 
Culture'  and  Mr.  Fergusson  in  his  'Tree  and  Serpent  Wor- 
ship '  go  ably  into  the  same  subject.  All  three  writers  give 
abundant  instances. 

It  is  found,  for  example,  that  serpents  either  have  been 
or  still  are  objects  of  worship  in  Egypt  \  Persia,  Kashmir, 
India,  China,  Thibet,  Ceylon,  Babylonia,  Phoenicia,  Greece, 
Italy,  Lithuania,  and  among  the  Kalmucks  and  many  un- 
cultured tribes  of  Africa  and  America. 

My  remarks  in  the  present  chapter  must  of  course  be 
limited  to  India,  but  a  difficult  question  meets  us  at  the 
very  threshold  :— Can  any  satisfactory  account  be  given  of 
the  origin  of  zoolatry  in  that  country  and  its  continued 
prevalence  there  to  this  very  day? 

I  need  scarcely  point  out  that  because  animal-worship 
is  common  among  numerous  races  in  other  parts  of  the 
world,   it  does  not  follow  that  it  may  not   have  originated 


^  The  Egyptians,  who  were  the  first  educators  of  the  world,  adored, 
as  every  one  knows,  the  bull  Apis,  the  bird  Ibis,  the  hawk,  the  crocodile, 
and  many  other  animals.     The  mummified  cat  is  a  familiar  object  in 

the  British  Museum. 


314  Worship  of  Animals. 

independently  in  India.  The  human  mind,  like  the  body,  goes 
through  similar  phases  everywhere,  develops  similar  proclivi- 
ties, and  is  liable  to  similar  diseases.  It  is  certain  that 
every  form  of  Fetishism  and  Totemism,  of  stone-worship, 
tree-worship,  and  animal-worship,  as  well  as  every  variety 
of  polytheistic  and  pantheistic  superstition,  have  sprung  up 
spontaneously  and  flourished  vigorously  on  Indian  soil. 

The  motives,  too,  which  have  prompted  men  to  worship 
animals  in  India,  are  probably  similar  to  those  which  have 
actuated  them  elsewhere.  It  is  thought  by  some  that  an 
animal  may  receive  adoration  for  any  one  of  three  reasons. 
I.  Because,  like  an  elephant  or  lion,  it  happens  to  possess 
superhuman  strength  and  courage ;  2.  because  it  is  believed 
to  be  an  incarnation  of  the  deity;  3.  because  it  is  regarded 
as  a  totem  or  representative  of  a  tribe  or  family,  the  word 
totem  being  derived  from  an  American  Indian  word  dodaim, 
which  signifies  the  patron  or  typical  animal  of  a  tribe.  For 
it  is  remarkable  that  in  America  every  member  of  a  tribe 
or  clan  may  be  called  by  the  name  of  some  animal,  as,  for 
example,  a  bear,  or  a  tortoise;  pictures  of  these  animals 
standing  for  the  whole  clan,  very  much  as  animals  are  used 
typically  in  the  armorial  bearings  of  some  English  families 
in  England,  and  just  as  in  South  Africa  we  hear  of  men  of 
the  fish,  men  of  the  crocodile,  &c.  (Tylor's  '  Primitive  Cul- 
ture,' ii.  235.) 

One  writer  is  inclined  to  lay  great  stress  on  Totemism  as 
a  motive  for  zoolatry.  He  thinks  that  an  individual  or 
family  called  after  a  bear  would  be  inclined  to  worship  the 
bear.  I  cannot  believe  that  such  a  motive  had  much  weight 
in  India.  It  is  true  that  the  word  sink  (for  Sanskrit  sioha) 
is  often  appended  to  the  names  of  men  (as  in  Amara-sinha, 
Ran-jit-sinh) ;  and  in  other  parts  of  India  the  expressions 
'man-lion,'  'man-tiger,'  'man-bull,'  etc.  denote  a  man  re- 
markable for  courage  or  strength ;  but  as  a  matter  of  fact 
the  names  of  the  animals  most  worshipped  in  India — with 


Worship  of  Aiiiniah.  315 

the  exception,  perhaps,  of  Naga — are  not  generally  applied  to 
human  beings.  It  seems  to  me  more  probable  that  Indian 
animal-worship  is  to  be  accounted  for  by  the  working  of 
one  or  other  of  the  motives,  gratitude,  fear,  or  awe,  operating 
separately,  in  separate  cases. 

For  instance,  a  Hindu  worships  a  cow  because  he  is  pro- 
foundly sensible  of  the  services  it  renders  him  ;  he  worships 
a  serpent  because  he  dreads  its  power  of  destroying  him  by 
the  slightest  puncture ;  and  he  worships  a  monkey  because 
he  stands  in  awe  of  the  marvellous  instinct  it  displays.  In 
short,  his  zoolatry  is  simply  the  expression  of  an  exaggerated 
or  intensified  feeling  of  admiration  for  the  three  qualities, 
utility,  brute  strength,  and  instinct,  manifesting  themselves  in 
animal  nature.  It  must  not  be  forgotten,  too,  that  with  a  Hindu 
all  organic  life  is  sacred.  Even  plant-life  is  to  be  respected, 
and  must  not  wantonly  be  destroyed. 

Without  doubt  this  feeling  is  strengthened  by  the  intense 
hold  which  the  doctrine  of  metempsychosis  has  on  the 
Hindu  mind.  It  is  difficult,  as  we  have  already  seen,  for 
any  believer  in  Hinduism  to  draw  a  line  of  demarcation 
between  gods,  men,  and  animals.  If  men  depend  on  animals, 
so  also  do  the  gods ;  if  men  are  associated  with  animals,  so 
also  are  the  gods.  Brahma  is  carried  on  a  goose  (hansa) ; 
Vishnu  on  an  eagle  (Garuda),  which  is  also  half  a  man; 
Siva  on  a  bull  (Nandi). 

Other  deities  are  associated  with  other  animals  ^  Nor 
must  we  forget  that  Vishnu's  first  three  incarnations  are 
zoomorphic.  He  infuses  his  essence  into  the  fish,  the  tor- 
toiscj  and  the  boar  (see  pp.  107-109),  with  the  object  of 
delivering  the  world,  or  aiding  it  in  certain  special  exigencies. 
This  seems  absurd   to  our  ideas,  but  not  to  a  Hindu  who 


^  The  association  of  great  heroes  and  saints  with  animals  is  not 
confined  to  India,  for  we  find  three  of  the  Evangelists  (St.  Mark, 
St.  Luke,  and  St.  John)  associated  with  a  lion,  ox,  and  eagle,  respec- 
tively. 


3i6  Worship  of  Animals. 

firmly  believes  that  the  supreme  soul  of  the  univei-se,  like 
the  soul  of  man,  may  pass  into  any  kind  of  animal  form. 

It  is  said  of  Dr.  Duff — to  whose  labours  at  Calcutta  India 
is  so  deeply  indebted — that  he  was  once  examining  a  school 
of  boys  in  India,  and  wishing  to  ridicule  this  idea  of  animal 
incarnations,  said  to  the  boys,  '  Can  any  boy  tell  me  whether 
it  is  likely  that  God's  spirit  would  associate  itself  with  a 
snail .!^'  No  one  answered  for  some  time;  at  last  an  intel- 
ligent lad  said,  '  I  think  He  might  condescend  to  do  so,  if 
any  useful  purpose  were  to  be  served  thereby  for  the  good 
of  His  creatures.'  '  Then,'  said  Dr.  Duff,  '  you  think  as  a 
fool.'  But  did  the  boy  really  think  foolishly.?  and  had  he 
the  worst  of  the  encounter  in  his  little  brush  with  the  Scotch 
giant  ? 

Again,  it  is  owing  to  a  belief  in  this  same  doctrine  of 
metempsychosis  that  a  Hindu  has  no  difficulty  in  believing 
that  a  beast,  bird,  or  reptile  may  at  any  moment  develope 
human  faculties  and  functions.  According  to  popular  belief 
there  are  eighty-four  lakhs  of  different  species  of  animals 
through  which  a  man  is  liable  to  pass.  Even  a  noxious  insect, 
therefore,  may  enclose  the  soul  of  some  person  who  was  once 
a  sage,  a  saint,  or  an  orator.  It  is  on  this  account  that  the 
excellent  stories  about  talking  animals  and  their  sayings 
and  doings,  everywhere  current  in  India,  are  to  the  generality 
of  unthinking  Hindus  not  mere  fables^  but  true  narratives. 
A  beast  or  bird  may  on  special  occasions  speak  with  a  human 
voice,  engage  in  long  arguments,  acquire  profound  learning, 
and  be  troubled  with  a  sense  of  right  and  wrong,  without 
violating  any  law  of  organized  life,  or  outraging  any  of  the 
usual  ideas  of  probability. 

It  is  on  this  account,  too,  that  no  man,  woman,  or  child 
among  the  Hindus  will  venture  to  kill  an  animal  of  any  kind. 
Everywhere  in  India  animals  of  every  description  appear  to 
live  on  terms  of  the  greatest  confidence  and  intimacy  with 
human  beings.     Everywhere  they  dispute  possession  of  the 


Worship  of  the  Cow.  3 1  7 

earth  with  man.  Birds  build  their  nests  and  lay  their  eggs 
in  the  fields,  untroubled  by  fears  or  misgivings,  before  the 
very  eyes  of  every  passer-by,  and  within  the  reach  of  every 
village  school-boy.  Animals  of  all  kinds  rove  over  the  soil 
as  if  they  were  the  landlords.  Here  and  there  a  needy  farmer 
may  drive  them  from  his  crops,  but  he  dares  not  question 
their  claim  to  a  portion  of  the  food  he  eats  and  the  house 
he  occupies  ;  while  everywhere  in  the  towns  they  are  admitted, 
so  to  speak,  to  the  privileges  of  fellow-citizens.  Bulls  walk 
about  independently  in  the  streets,  and  jostle  you  on  the 
pavements ;  monkeys  domesticate  themselves  jauntily  on  the 
roof  of  your  house  ;  parrots  peer  inquisitively  from  the  eaves 
of  your  bedroom  into  the  mysteries  of  your  toilet ;  crows 
make  themselves  at  home  on  your  window-sill,  and  carry  off 
impudently  any  portable  article  of  jewelry  that  takes  their 
fancy  on  your  dressing-table ;  sparrows  hop  about  imper- 
tinently, and  take  the  bread  off  your  table-cloth ;  a  solitary 
mongoose  emerges  every  morning  from  a  hole  in  your 
verandah,  and  expects  a  share  in  your  breakfast ;  swarms  of 
insects  claim  a  portion  of  your  midday  meal,  and  levy  a  tax 
on  the  choicest  delicacies  at  your  dinner  table ;  bats  career 
triumphantly  about  your  head  as  you  light  yourself  to  your 
bed-room ;  and  at  certain  seasons  snakes  domicile  themselves 
unpleasantly  in  the  folds  of  your  cast-off  garments. 

I  need  say  no  more  to  make  it  clear  that,  in  the  eyes  of 
the  orthodox  Hindu,  every  animal  is  more  or  less  sacred 
and  inviolable.  Let  me  rather  proceed  to  note  some  of  the 
more  interesting  examples  of  actual  animal-worship.  And  first 
let  us  turn  our  attention  to  three  classes  of  animals,  the 
adoration  of  which  probably  results  from  the  operation  of  the 
three  motives  I  have  already  suggested. 

In  the  forefront  must  be  placed  the  worship  of  the  cow, 
the  ox,  and  the  bull.  The  utility  of  the  cow  as  a  source 
of  nourishment  to  a  people  who  never  kill  animals  for  food, 
and  of  the  ox  to  agriculturalists  who  have  no  cart-horses  for 


v5 


1 8  Worship  of  the  Cow. 


draught,  is  manifest.  The  cow  is  of  all  animals  the  most 
sacred.  Every  part  of  its  body  is  inhabited  by  some  deity  or 
other.  Every  hair  on  its  body  is  inviolable.  All  its  excreta 
are  hallowed.  Not  a  particle  ought  to  be  thrown  away  as 
impure.  On  the  contrary,  the  water  it  ejects  ought  to  be  pre- 
served as  the  best  of  all  holy  waters — a  sin-destroying  liquid 
which  sanctifies  everything  it  touches,  while  nothing  purifies 
like  cow-dung.  Any  spot  which  a  cow  has  condescended  to 
honour  with  the  sacred  deposit  of  her  excrement  is  for  ever 
afterwards  consecrated  ground,  and  the  filthiest  place  plastered 
with  it  is  at  once  cleansed  and  freed  from  pollution,  while 
the  ashes  produced  by  burning  this  hallowed  substance  are 
of  such  a  holy  nature,  that  they  not  only  make  clean  all 
material  things,  however  previously  unclean,  but  have  only 
to  be  sprinkled  over  a  sinner  to  convert  him  into  a  saint. 

In  an  underground  passage  of  the  Agra  fort  there  is  an 
image  of  a  man  named  Mukunda.  The  Brahman  who  was 
my  guide  when  I  visited  this  place  gravely  informed  me 
that  it  represented  a  celebrated  saint  who  felt  himself  com- 
pelled to  commit  suicide  by  jumping  into  the  neighbouring 
river  as  a  penalty  for  having  accidentally  swallowed  the 
hair  of  a  cow  by  drinking  milk  without  straining  it.  But 
even  this,  he  continued,  was  not  deemed  sufficient  punish- 
ment, for  he  was'  condemned  to  become  a  Muhammadan  in 
his  next  birth,  though  the  harshness  of  the  sentence  was 
partially  mitigated  by  the  fact  that  he  was  born  again  as 
the  Emperor  Akbar. 

It  is  worthy  of  note  that  the  Hindus  believe  in  the  exist- 
ence of  a  typical  divine  cow  called  Surabhi  or  Kama-dhenu, 
*the  cow  of  plenty,'  yielding  all  desired  objects,  representa- 
tions of  which  are  to  be  seen  in  temples,  or  are  kept  in 
houses  for  purposes  of  domestic  worship.  This  typical  animal 
was  produced  from  the  ocean  when  it  was  churned  by  the 
gods  and  demons  (see  p.  io8).  Yet  I  nowhere  saw  any  temple 
dedicated  exclusively  to  Surabhi  or  to  any  other  cow.     It 


Worship  of  Serpents.  319 

is  rather  the  living  animal  which  is  a  perpetual  object  of 
adoration.  As  to  the  bull,  he  is,  as  we  have  seen,  dedicated 
to  Siva ;  he  is  constantly  associated  with  the  god  as  typical 
of  generative  power,  and  images  of  him  arc  to  be  found  near 
all  Lihga  shrines.  The  letting  loose  of  a  bull  (vrishotsarga) 
— stamped  with  the  trident  of  Siva — in  sacred  cities  like 
Benares  and  Gaya  is  an  act  fraught  with  the  highest  merit 
in  this  world  and  the  next. 

Passing  on  to  the  second  class  of  animals,  or  those  wor- 
shipped out  of  motives  of  fear,  we  must,  of  course,  place  the 
serpent  at  the  head  of  the  list.  Much  has  been  written  on 
ophiolatry,  and  on  the  vexed  question  of  its  origin.  The 
subject  seems  inexhaustible.  Many,  indeed,  believe  that 
snake-worship  was  the  earliest  form  of  religion  prevalent 
among  men  in  all  parts  of  the  globe,  its  general  diffusion 
being  partially  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  serpents  arc 
indigenous  almost  everywhere,  and  not,  like  monkeys  and 
elephants,  in  certain  localities  only.  All  writers,  however, 
are  agreed  that  the  chief  factor  in  the  universality  of  this 
phase  of  superstition  is  the  dread  inspired  by  a  mysterious 
creeping  creature,  silent  and  stealthy  in  its  movements,  ap- 
parently quite  unprovided  w^ith  the  most  ordinary  means  of 
offence  and  defence,  yet  found  to  have  at  its  command  the 
most  deadly  of  all  known  destructive  weapons,  and  able  to 
cause  almost  instantaneous  death  by  merely  pricking  the 
skin  of  its  adversary. 

In  India,  as  is  well  known,  the  habit  of  walking  barefoot 
exposes  the  half-clad  natives  to  constant  peril  from  this 
source,  so  that,  according  to  some  authorities,  at  least  25,000 
perish  annually  from  snake-bites  (many  deaths  being  un- 
registered). Nevertheless,  the  feeling  of  antipathy  that  leads 
a  man  to  recoil  from  contact  with  a  snake  of  any  kind  does 
not  seem  to  depend  entirely  on  its  power  of  doing  harm. 
A  large  majority  of  these  animals  are  quite  innocuous.  Yet 
to    many  persons  their   sinuous   movements,   their   habit    of 


320  Worship  of  Serpents. 

shunning  observation,  their  concealment  of  themselves  in 
holes,  the  cold  fixity  of  their  gaze,  and  the  constant  pro- 
trusion of  their  forked  tongues,  are  in  themselves  typical  of 
subtlety  and  malevolence;  while  to  others  these  operations 
are  not  merely  types  of  evil  qualities,  but  evidences  of  actual 
demoniacal  possession. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  certain  that  to  some  minds  the 
beautiful  markings,  spiral  movements,  and  generally  striking 
aspect  of  many  species  of  innocuous  snakes,  are  suggestive 
of  only  pleasant  ideas.  To  such  persons  serpents  are  typical 
of  divine  beauty  and  beneficence,  while  the  coiling  of  their 
bodies  in  rings  and  circles,  and  their  annual  rejuvenescence 
by  the  renewal  of  their  skins,  symbolize  immortality  and 
the  never-ending  cycles  of  eternal  time. 

It  is  remarkable  that  serpents  are  either  worshipped  or 
propitiated  in  India  under  all  these  opposite  characters  even 
to  the  present  day.  Nor  does  a  Hindu  appear  to  see  any 
inconsistency  in  regarding  snakes  as  embodiments  of  the 
contradictory  ideas  of  destruction  and  regeneration,  male- 
volence and  benevolence,  demonism  and  divinity,  death  and 
immortality. 

No  authority,  however,  for  any  such  diversified  concep- 
tions of  serpent-nature  is  to  be  found  in  the  more  ancient 
sacred  writings  of  India ;  nor  is  there  any  proof  that  the 
early  Aryan  immigrants  were  in  any  sense  serpent-worship- 
pers. On  the  contrary,  their  only  feeling  towards  the  serpent 
was  one  of  dread  and  dislike.     Hence  in  the  Rig-veda  (see 

VI.  20.  2)  the  demon  of  cloud  and  darkness,  called  Vritra, 
is  either  identified  or  associated  with  the  serpent  Ahi  ("0(^is) ; 
and  the  god  Soma  is  described  as  delivering  over  all  evil 
speakers  and  slanderers  into  the  power  of  this  serpent  (see 

VII.  104.  9,  and  compare  Vajasaneyi-samhita  VI.  12).  We 
know,  too,  that  even  to  this  day  the  sight  of  a  snake  in  the 
early  morning  is  to  a  Brahman  so  bad  an  omen,  that  after 
seeing  it  he  will  desist  for  the  moment  from  the  prosecution 


Worship  of  Serpoits.  3  2  i 

of  any  work  in  which  he  may  be  engaged  ^  Yet  so  clastic 
was  the  creed  and  practice  of  Rrahmanism,  that,  finding 
serpent-worship,  Hke  other  aboriginal  cults,  established  on 
Indian  soil,  it  had  no  difficulty  in  adopting  it,  and  ended  by 
incorporating  every  superstitious  idea  connected  with  ophio- 
latry into  the  complex  fabric  of  Hinduism. 

In  fact  the  gradual  intertwining  of  serpent-worship  with 
Saivism,  Vaishnavism,  and  even  Buddhism  and  Jainism,  but 
more  especially  with  Saivism  (see  pp.  80,  105,  and  113),  is 
one  of  the  most  interesting  features  of  this  complex  subject. 
Siva  has  five  heads,  and  a  great  majority  of  serpent  images 
are  five-headed  also.  Then  I  have  often  seen  images  of 
serpents  coiled  round  the  Liriga,  and  five-headed  snakes 
forming  a  canopy  over  it.  A  similar  canopy  is  also  found 
over  idols  of  Krishna  and  Buddha  ;  Vishnu,  too,  is  repre- 
sented as  sleeping  on  the  thousand-headed  Scsha,  the  symbol 
of  Infinity,  which  also  forms  a  canopy  over  him. 

On  the  other  hand,  Garuda,  the  mythical  bird  of  Vishnu, 
half  eagle,  half  man,  destroys  serpents  in  their  character  of 
representatives  of  evil.  Krishna  does  the  same ;  and  the 
Maha-bharata — that  greatest  of  all  repositories  of  Hindu 
belief — opens  with  a  long  account  of  Janamejaya's  sacrifice  for 
the  annihilation  of  the  serpent  or  Naga  race  (I.  1547-2197). 
Buddhism,  no  doubt,  became  connected  with  serpent-worship 
not  from  any  affinity  with  it,  but  because  of  its  tolerant 
habit  of  adapting  itself  to  all  pre-existing  cults.  The  same 
may  be  said  of  Jainism. 

And  here  it  must  be  observed  that  the  worship  of  serpents 
in  India  is  closely  connected  with  that  of  the  Nfigas  ;  or 
rather,  is  generally  mixed  up  and  confounded  with  that 
worship.  Indeed  the  word  Naga  frequently  denotes  an 
ordinary  serpent,   though   it  properly  signifies  a  being  half 


*  Yet  a  snake  (as  oviparous)  is,  like  a  Brahman,  called  Dvi-ja,  'twice- 
born.'     Birds  for  the  same  reason  are  *  twice-born.' 


32  2  Worship  of  Serpents. 

human,  half  serpentine  in  form\  not  necessarily  evil,  but 
often  beautiful,  wise,  and  good,  and,  although  armed  with 
a  deadly  venom,  possessing  also  the  elixir  of  life  and  im- 
mortality, and  able  to  bestow  it  upon  others  (Maha-bh.  I. 
1500-1505,  5018-5035). 

The  race  of  Nagas  is  fabled  to  have  sprung  from  Kadru, 
one  of  the  wives  of  the  old  patriarch  Kasyapa  (her  sister 
Vinata  being  also  a  wife  of  Kasyapa,  and  mother  of  Garuda). 
Kadru  gave  birth  to  1000  Nagas,  who  became  the  progenitors 
of  the  whole  serpent-race.  Some  of  the  females  among  them, 
like  Ulupl  (p.  233),  are  believed  to  have  married  human 
heroes,  and  to  this  day  there  are  tribes  called  Nagas  ^  and 
ancient  families  who  claim  to  be  of  Naga  descent  (p.  233, 
note).  The  whole  race  of  mythical  Nagas  is  sometimes 
represented  as  dwelling  at  the  bottom  of  the  ocean,  or  in 
the  depths  of  rivers  and  lakes,  but  more  frequently  as  in- 
habiting the  regions  under  the  earth  (see  p.  233),  and  more 
especially  Patala,  or  a  portion  of  it  called  Nagaloka,  of  which 
the  capital  is  Bhogavatl.  In  connexion  with  their  supposed 
watery  abode,  the  following  curious  story  is  told  in  the  Maha- 
bharata  (I.  5006): — 

The  Pandu  princes  in  their  boyish  sports  excelled  the  sons 
of  Dhrita-rashtra.  This  excited  much  ill-feeling ;  and  Dur- 
yodhana,  spiteful  even  when  a  boy,  tried  to  destroy  Bhima 
by  mixing  poison  in  his  food,  and  then  throwing  him  into 
the  water  when  stupefied  by  its  effects.  BhIma,  however, 
was  not  drowned,  but  descended  to  the  abode  of  the  Nagas, 
who  freed  him  from  the  poison  (I.  5052),  and  gave  him  an 

^  Dr.  K.  M.  Banerjea  thinks  that  the  theory  of  a  race  of  Nagas,  half 
serpents,  half  men,  confirms  the  Biblical  account  of  the  serpent,  which 
was  originally  perhaps  a  species  corresponding  to  the  Nagas,  till  the 
sentence  was  pronounced  by  which  it  became  a  creeping  reptile.  It  is 
said  that  when  serpents  are  accidentally  killed  in  India,  they  are  some- 
times honoured  with  regular  funeral  ceremonies  like  human  beings. 

^  For  example,  the  Nagas  of  Manipur,  but  they  are  not  found  to  be 
snake-worshippers. 


Worship  of  Sirpcnis.  323 

elixir  to  drink  which  endued  him  with  the  strength  of  ten 
thousand  Nagas.  From  that  moment  he  became  a  kind  of 
Hercules. 

The  kings  of  the  Nagas  are  Sesha,  Vasuki,  and  Takshaka. 
Of  these,  the  most  conspicuous  is  the  thousand-headed  Sesha, 
also  called  An-anta,  '  the  Infinite,'  sometimes  represented  as 
forming  the  couch  and  canopy  of  Vishnu,  while  sleeping 
during  the  intervals  of  creation  ;  sometimes  as  bearing  the 
world  on  his  thousand  heads;  sometimes  as  supporting  Patala; 
and  sometimes  as  having  become  man  in  the  form  of  Bala- 
rama  (p.  112).  According  to  popular  belief  all  earthquakes 
are  caused  by  his  shaking  one  of  his  thousand  heads. 

A  particular  day  called  Naga-pancaml,  about  the  end  of 
July  (Sravana),  is  held  sacred  to  the  Nagas,  and  in  the 
districts  of  India  where  serpent-worship  is  especially  rife, 
numbers  flock  to  Naga-shrines  on  that  day.  I  should  state, 
however,  that  temples  dedicated  to  serpents  are  by  no  means 
common  in  Northern  India.  The  only  one  I  visited  was  that 
sacred  to  Vasuki  at  Dara-ganj,  near  Allahabad.  This  is  a 
noted  shrine,  and  pilgrims  resort  to  it  in  large  numbers  on 
the  Naga-pancaml  festival.  I  found  that  the  priest  of  this 
temple  was  not  a  Brahman,  but  a  man  of  low  caste  ^  On 
my  expressing  a  wish  for  some  memorial  of  the  place,  he 
tore  off  a  rude  drawing  of  a  many-headed  serpent  which  was 
fastened  to  the  door  of  the  shrine,  and  presented  it  to  me. 

Other  shrines  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Niigpur  and  cer- 
tain districts  of  the  central  provinces  (such  as  Chanda-pur, 
Bhandhak,  etc.)  are  much  frequented  at  certain  seasons.  In 
Southern  India  the  whole  of  Kanara  may  be  regarded  as 
steeped  in  serpent-worship. 

Mr.  Walhouse  informs  us  that  one  of  the  highest  mountains 
of  the  South  Kanara  Ghats,  named  Su-brahmanya,  has  a 
very  celebrated  serpent-temple.     There  great  numbers  of  the 

'  This  is,  I  believe,  the  case  in  all  serpent-temples,  and  it  is  one 
evidence  that  Brahmanism  had  originally  no  connexion  with  ophiolatr)'. 

Y  a 


324  Worship  of  Serpents. 

'  coiling  folk '  reside  in  holes  and  crevices  made  for  them. 
To  propitiate  these  creatures,  persons  who  have  made  vows 
roll  and  wriggle  round  the  temple  serpent-fashion,  and  some 
will  even  roll  their  bodies  up  to  it  from  the  foot  of  the  hill, 
a  mile  distant.  They  also  take  home  with  them  portions 
of  earth  from  the  sacred  serpent-holes.  This  earth  is  believed 
to  cleanse  from  leprosy,  if  rubbed  on  the  parts  affected ;  it 
will  moreover  cure  barrenness  in  women,  if  a  little  be  daily 
put  in  the  mouth.  Serpentine  body-wriggling  is  also  prac- 
tised further  south,  where  small  snake-temples  [N'dga-kovil 
in  Tamil)  are  common.  Near  one  of  these,  not  far  from 
Madura  on  the  bank  of  the  Vaiga  river,  there  are  men  who 
for  a  few  rupees  will  perform  any  number  of  wrigglings  and 
rollings  round  the  shrine,  as  proxies  for  persons  who  have 
vowed  them  \ 

Indeed  it  seems  to  be  a  fixed  article  of  belief  throughout 
Southern  India,  that  all  who  have  wilfully  or  accidentally 
killed  a  snake,  especially  a  cobra^  will  certainly  be  punished 
either  in  this  life  or  the  next  in  one  of  three  ways  : — either 
by  childlessness,  or  by  leprosy,  or  by  ophthalmia.  It  behoves 
all  persons,  therefore,  who  are  afflicted  with  such  diseases, 
or  feel  that  they  may  have  to  undergo  the  inevitable  penalty 
hereafter,  to  visit  serpent-shrines  and  conciliate  the  serpent- 
gods  by  the  most  abject  homage.  In  connexion  with  these 
ideas,  I  may  mention  that  on  the  banks  of  the  river  Tamra- 
parnl,  near  a  bridge  connecting  Tinnevelly  with  Palamcottah, 
I  noticed  two  or  three  Pipal  trees,  under  which  were  depo- 
sited hundreds  of  stone  images  of  Krishna  and  of  the  Lihga 
of  Siva,  each  image  having  a  five-headed  Naga  so  carved 
as  to  form  a  canopy  over  it.  It  is  the  custom  in  the  South 
of  India  for  any  woman  who  is  childless,  and  believes  her 
barrenness  to  be  caused  by  having  killed  a  cobra  in  a  former 
life,  to  perform  the  ceremony  called  Naga-pratishtha ;  that 


*  See  '  Indian  Antiquary,'  for  February  1878. 


Worship  of  Serpents. 


j^o 


is  to  say,  she  sets  up  a  stone  Naga  under  a  tree,  taking  care 
to  have  it  duly  consecrated  by  the  repetition  of  texts  and 
prayers.  On  the  occasion  of  my  visit  to  the  Tamra-parnI, 
several  women  were  assembled  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
largest  Pipal  tree.  Some  performed  reverential  circumambu- 
lation  round  the  images,  and  some  sprinkled  them  with  water 
from  vessels  which  they  held  in  their  hands. 

In  the  same  way  childless  women  are  in  the  habit  of  going 
to  holes  in  the  earth  where  snakes  are  supposed  to  dwell,  and 
depositing  offerings  of  milk  with  invocations  and  prayers. 

I  may  note  here  another  curious  superstition  connected 
with  this  subject.  The  heads  of  all  Nagas  and  of  all  ser- 
pents— especially  cobras — are  believed  to  contain  precious 
stones  and  gems  of  magical  properties.  These,  if  extracted 
and  carried  about  on  the  person,  are  capable  of  working  as 
astounding  miracles  for  their  owners,  as  the  wonderful  lamp 
did  for  Aladdin.  I  met  with  no  one  who  could  show  me  a 
specimen  of  these  so-called  miraculous  snake-stones,  but  they 
are  described  as  dark  and  shining,  and  shaped  like  a  horse- 
bean.  A  similar  superstition  exists  in  some  parts  of  England 
in  regard  to  supposed  stones  in  the  heads  of  toads. 

As  an  example  of  other  superstitious  ideas  about  snakes, 
it  is  related  that  a  certain  village  in  Northern  India  was  not 
long  ago  suddenly  deserted  by  all  its  inhabitants.  No  per- 
suasions would  induce  the  people  to  return,  and  on  inquiry 
it  was  found  that  the  panic  among  the  villagers  was  caused 
by  an  unexpected  visitation  of  snakes,  who  had  established 
themselves  comfortably  in  the  precincts  of  the  village,  and 
that  these  harmless  immigrants  were  believed  to  be  a  colony 
of  malevolent  demons. 

Again,  it  is  said  that  a  man  once  bought  a  piece  of  ground 
and  sat  down  to  contemplate  his  purchase  under  a  tree  in 
the  centre  of  his  newly-acquired  property.  Suddenly  he 
heard  the  hissing  of  a  snake  coiled  in  the  branches  above 
his  head.      Panic -struck,  he  ran  off  and  escaped  unharmed, 


326  Worship  of  JMonkcys. 

but  never  dared  to  show  his  face  on  the  ground  again, 
being  firmly  convinced  that  the  serpent  was  the  indignant 
spirit  of  the  former  proprietor,  whom  he  had  imprudently 
neglected  to  propitiate  before  taking  possession. 

So  much  for  the  complex  and  difficult  subject  of  serpent- 
worship  in  India, 

Probably  the  best  representative  of  the  third  class  of 
animals  whose  worship  originally  arose  from  a  deep  rever- 
ence for  instinct  is  the  monkey.  And  here  a  difficult  question 
presents  itself  as  to  the  precise  meaning  of  the  term  '  instinct.' 
Is  it  possible  to  define  its  exact  nature  and  to  give  any  reason 
for  its  claim  to  adoration?  Without  attempting  to  solve 
insoluble  metaphysical  problems  we  may  perhaps  describe 
instinctj  in  a  general  way,  as  the  mysterious  exercise  of 
certain  powers  and  faculties  of  mind  and  body  in  obedience 
to  the  laws  of  organized  life  without  conscious  will.  The 
working  of  these  powers  in  the  lower  animals  may  well  excite 
amazement  and  admiration,  if  not  worship.  What  can  be 
more  wonderful  than  the  sight  of  a  feeble  timid  mother-bird 
suddenly  transformed  by  instinct  into  a  very  tigress,  and 
ready  to  fight  hopelessly  in  defence  of  her  young  against  an 
opponent  immeasurably  her  superior? 

To  a  Hindu  sucha  sight  would  be  an  intense  confirmation 
of  his  belief  that  the  divine  soul  may  occupy  animals  as  well 
as  men.  And  if  instinct  in  the  lower  animals  fills  him  with 
so  deep  an  awe,  how  much  more  is  he  inclined  to  attach 
sacredness  to  a  class  of  animals  in  whom  instinct  almost 
impinges  upon  the  domain  of  reason  ? 

With  regard  to  the  actual  worship  of  monkeys  little  need 
be  added  to  what  has  already  been  stated  in  relation  to 
Hanuman  (see  p.  220).  In  Hindu  mythology  apes  and 
monkeys  are  as  intimately  connected  with  the  worship  of 
Vishnu  as  the  bull  is  with  that  of  Siva ;  though  the  reverence 
for  these  animals  probably  preceded  the  full  development  of 
both  Vaishnavism  and  Saivism  (see  note,  p.  222).     Indeed 


Worship  of  various  a}ii})ials.  327 

the  idea  of  a  close  interconnexion  between  gods,  demons, 
men,  and  animals  dates  from  the  earliest  times  ;  and  the  hold 
which  such  ideas  have  gained  on  the  Hindu  mind  is  often 
illustrated  in  a  remarkable  manner  by  present  customs. 

In  Ward's  *  Hindoos '  an  account  is  given  of  what  to  Euro- 
peans would  appear  an  incredible  occurrence:  —  A  certain 
Bengal  Raja  spent  100,000  rupees  in  marrying  a  male  and 
female  monkey,  with  all  the  paraphernalia,  pageant,  and 
expense  usual  at  the  weddings  of  high-caste  human  beings. 
The  male  monkey  was  borne  along  in  a  costly  vehicle,  had 
a  crown  fastened  on  his  head,  and  a  whole  array  of  servants 
to  wait  on  him.  The  festivities  lasted  for  twelve  days.  Pro- 
bably, after  all,  this  extraordinary  proceeding  was  merely  a 
mode  of  offering  homage  to  Hanuman,  whose  worship,  as 
already  explained  at  p.  220,  is  prevalent  everywhere. 

I  may  note  here  as  a  curious  circumstance  that  there  is  at 
Benares  a  well-known  temple,  commonly  called  the  '  monkey- 
temple,'  which  is  not  really  dedicated  to  Hanuman,  but  to 
Durga.  I  witnessed  the  sacrifice  of  a  goat  in  honour  of  the 
goddess  outside  the  door  of  the  shrine,  while  several  intelli- 
gent monkeys,  with  true  simian  and  mock-human  curiosity, 
leaped  from  the  neighbouring  trees,  took  up  a  position  on 
the  vantage-ground  of  the  roof,  and  seemed  to  be  quite  as 
interested  in  the  ceremony  as  I  was.  These  animals  arc 
daily  fed  by  pious  persons  who  frequent  the  temple.  To 
feed  one  is  a  highly  meritorious  act ;  to  injure  one  would 
be  the  most  heinous  of  crimes. 

I  can  only  advert  briefly  to  other  animals  usually  held 
sacred  in  India.  A  large  number  are,  as  we  have  seen  (p.  104, 
note  3),  associated  with  gods,  as  their  vehicles,  servants,  or 
companions,  and  worshipped  accordingly. 

Vishnu's  attendant,  the  divine  Garuda  (see  p.  104),  is  re- 
presented by  a  species  of  eagle  or  similar  bird,  common  \i\ 
some  parts  of  India,  and  held  in  great  honour. 

In    some  country  districts,  villagers   are   in    the    habit   of 


2,2S  Worship  of  various  animals. 

invoking  Garuda's  protection  against  snakes  every  night 
before  going  to  sleep.  Again,  in  the  North  Koiikan,  I 
heard  of  a  tribe  called  Warall,  who  worship  Vaghoba,  the 
'  tiger-lord  '  (Sanskrit  Vyaghra,  a  tiger),  from  similar  motives. 

Then  the  goose  (hansa)  is,  as  we  have  seen,  sacred  to 
Brahma,  the  elephant  to  Indra,  the  tiger  to  Durga,  the  buffalo 
to  Yama,  the  rat  to  Ganesa,  the  ram  to  Agni,  the  peacock 
to  Skanda,  the  parrot  to  Kama-deva  (god  of  love). 

With  regard  to  the  sacredness  of  the  elephant,  it  is  notable 
that  the  earth  is  not  only  supported  on  Sesha  (p.  323),  but 
also  on  the  vast  heads  and  backs  of  eight  male  and  eight 
female  elephants,  who  all  have  names  and  distinct  person- 
alities. They  are  called  the  elephants  of  the  eight  quarters. 
When  any  one  of  these  shakes  its  body  the  whole  earth 
quakes  (see  Ramayana  I.  41).  Sometimes  they  are  described 
as  indulging  locomotive  propensities,  and  roaming  about  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  their  stations. 

The  fish,  the  tortoise,  and  the  boar  are  of  course  worshipped 
as  incarnations  of  Vishnu.  Fish  are  often  kept  in  tanks  and 
fed  as  a  religious  duty.  At  Mathura  (Muttra)  I  noticed  a 
number  of  sacred  tortoises  and  turtles  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  the  temples.  They  swarm  in  the  river  and  are  daily  fed  by 
the  pilgrims.  The  crocodile  or  alligator  (makara)  is  some- 
times held  sacred  to  Kama-deva.  It  is  well  known  that 
children  were  at  one  time  thrown  into  the  Ganges  as  a 
sacrifice  to  these  animals,  who  eagerly  devoured  them.  The 
wag-tail  (Khafijana)  is  regarded  as  a  form  of  Vishnu,  the 
mark  on  its  throat  having  some  resemblance  to  a  Sala-grama 
stone.  The  cat  is  sacred  to  the  goddess  Shashthi  (p.  229), 
who  is  supposed  to  use  it  as  her  vehicle.  The  dog  is  con- 
nected with  Siva  (see  p.  266,  note)  in  his  character  of  a  Kirata 
or  mountaineer  (p.  64),  or  rather  perhaps  with  Rudra,  who  also 
presides  over  horses.  Hence  in  the  Satarudriya  hymn  of  the 
Yajur-veda  (see  p.  76)  we  have  the  expressions  '  Reverence  to 
dogs  and  to  the  lords  of  dogs,'  '  Reverence  to  horses  and  to 


Worship  of  varioics  aniiiials.  ^29 

the  lords  of  horses.'  Hence,  too,  the  name  Krita-jna,  'the 
grateful  one,'  is  applied  equally  to  Siva  and  to  dogs.  In 
Western  India  it  is  customary  to  feed  dogs  as  a  sacred  duty 
on  a  certain  day  in  each  montli.  In  the  Bali-harana  (some- 
times called  Kaka-bali)  ceremony,  performed  every  day  by 
religious  Hindus  before  dinner,  a  prayer  is  said  to  Yama's 
two  watch-dogs  (see  p.  289),  and  offerings  of  food  are  placed 
on  the  ground  for  all  dogs,  crows,  etc.  Again,  crows  are  fed 
at  the  end  of  the  Srilddha  ceremonies  during  the  Pitri-paksha 
(see  p.  31 1).  On  the  other  hand,  in  some  passages  of  the 
Epic  poems,  dogs  are  described  as  unclean  animals,  and  crows 
are  held  to  be  birds  of  ill-omen.  So  also  Sva-pa(5a,  '  dog- 
cooker,'  and  Tlrtha-kaka,  '  a  crow  at  a  place  of  pilgrimage,' 
are  terms  of  reproach  (see  Panini  II.  1.  42). 

Another  term  of  reproach  apphed  to  a  man  of  limited  ideas 
is  Kupa-manduka,  '  a  frog  in  a  well,'  or  Kupa-kacchapa,  '  a 
tortoise  in  a  well.' 

With  reference  to  the  sacredness  of  horses,  I  found  that  in 
some  parts  of  India,  at  the  Dasa-hara  (Dasara)  festival,  horses 
are  decorated  with  garlands.  The  mythical  horse,  Uc'c'aih- 
sravas,  'high-eared,'  produced  at  the  churning  of  the  ocean 
(p.  108),  and  supposed  to  be  the  prototype  of  the  whole 
race  of  horses,  is  generally  assigned  to  the  Vedic  god  Indra. 
We  know  that  the  Asva-medha,  or  '  horse-sacrifice,'  was  a 
very  ancient  ceremony,  hymns  162  and  163  in  Mandala  I.  of 
the  Rig-veda  being  used  at  this  rite.  It  was  held  to  be  the 
chief  of  all  animal  sacrifices,  and  in  later  times  its  eflficacy  was 
so  exaggerated  that  a  hundred  horse-sacrifices  entitled  the 
sacrificer  to  displace  Indra  from  the  dominion  of  heaven. 
Indra,  therefore,  always  endeavoured  to  capture  the  horse 
before  its  immolation  (see  Ramayana  I.  13). 

I  may  add  that  the  commentator  on  Panini  (II.  4.  9)  notices 
the  natural  enmity  between  the  cat  and  the  mouse,  the  dog 
and  the  jackal,  the  serpent  and  the  mongoose,  the  crow  and 
the  owl. 


330  Worship  of  Trees  and  Plants, 


Worship  of  Trees  and  Plants. 

We  learn  from  the  numerous  examples  adduced  by  Sir 
John  Lubbock,  Mr.  Tylor,  and  Mr.  Fergusson,  that  the 
adoration  of  trees,  shrubs  and  plants,  in  virtue  of  the 
supernatural  qualities  or  divine  essence  supposed  to  be  in- 
herent in  them,  is  almost  as  universally  diffused  over  the 
globe  as  the  worship  of  animals,  and  that  both  forms  of 
religion  are  of  the  greatest  antiquity.  Every  one  is  familiar 
with  such  instances  as  the  prophetic  oak  of  Dodona,  the 
myrtle  of  Venus,  the  poplar  sacred  to  Hercules,  the  oaks 
of  the  British  Druids,  and  the  sacred  groves  of  Germany 
mentioned  by  Tacitus^;  but  every  one  does  not  know  that 
there  existed  quite  recently  a  particular  oak-copse  in  the 
island  of  Skye  which  the  inhabitants  held  inviolably  sacred, 
and  that  here  and  there  in  remote  parts  of  Europe  simple- 
minded  peasants  are  to  be  found  who  still  pay  homage  to 
certain  trees,  still  hang  offerings  on  their  branches,  and  still 
believe  in  willows  that  bleed,  and  in  trees  that  speak  when 
about  to  be  cut  down. 

Tree-worship,  we  are  told,  was  once  common  in  Greece, 
France,  Poland,  Assyria,  and  many  other  countries.  It  has 
continually  prevailed  among  uncultivated  tribes  in  Africa, 
America,  and  Polynesia.  In  Persia  travellers  occasionally 
come  across  trees  hung  with  offerings  of  rags  and  garments, 
and  throughout  the  greater  part  of  Asia  a  belief  in  a  kind 
of  divinity  inherent  in  certain  trees  has  always  been  a  re- 
cognized element  of  the  popular  creed. 

In  India,  as  already  obsei-ved,  all  life  is  sacred.  It  might 
even  be  affirmed  that  the  Plindus  were  the  first  believers  in 
the  law  of  continuity;  for  in  their  creed  the  life  of  gods 
is  connected  with  that  of  demons,  the  life  of  demons  with 

^  Pliny  asserts  that  the  earliest  form  of  temple  or  church  was  a  tree, 
and  some  think  that  the  word  kirk  is  cognate  with  quercus. 


Worship  of  Trees  and  Plants.  3;,  i 

that  of  men,  the  Hfe  of  men  with  that  of  animals,  the  Hfc 
of  animals  with  that  of  plants,  the  life  of  plants  with  a  sui)- 
posed  life  in  rocks  and  stones,  and  the  divine  soul  is  thought 
to  permeate  all.  In  obedience  to  this  law  there  is  no  break 
of  any  kind  anywhere,  and  plant-worship  follows,  as  a  neces- 
sary consequence,  on  animal-worship.  In  fact,  according  to 
the  Hindu  theory  of  metempsychosis  all  trees  and  plants  are 
conscious  beings,  having  as  distinct  personalities  and  souls  of 
their  own  as  gods,  demons,  men,  and  animals  (see  Manu  I.  49). 
But  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  although  trees  may  in 
their  turn  become  the  receptacle  of  the  spirits  of  gods,  men, 
and  animals \  they  are  peculiarly  liable  to  be  occupied  by 
demons.  That  is  to  say,  these  beings  may  not  only  occupy 
a  tree  as  its  spirit  or  soul ;  they  may  often  resort  to  it  as 
guests,  or  take  up  their  abode  in  it  as  tenants,  when  it  is 
already  furnished  with  a  soul  of  its  own.  The  idea  seems  to  be 
that  demons  require  protection  from  the  weather  like  human 
beings,  and  occasionally  betake  themselves  to  trees  as  con- 
venient and  agreeable  places  of  shelter. 

This  explains  the  close  connexion  between  tree-worship, 
serpent-worship-,  demon-worship,  and  Siva-worship.  Demons 
are  believed  to  be  fond  of  occupying  both  serpents  and 
trees,  and  Siva  is  lord  of  demons,  of  serpents,  and  of  plants 
(see  p.  77). 

In  relation  to  this  subject,  it  may  be  noted  that  in  India 
a  tree  is  sometimes  planted  and  then  confided  to  the 
guardianship  of  a  demon,  who  from  that  moment  considers 
himself  responsible  for  the  safe-keeping  of  the  tree,  and  if 
any  one  is  rash  enough  to  steal  its  fruit,  punishes  him  by 
afflicting  him  with  sickness^. 

^  The  great  Buddha  is  said  to  have  occupied  trees  forty-three  times 
in  the  course  of  his  transmigrations. 

^  The  connexion  of  serpent-worship  with  tree- worship  may  have 
originally  arisen  from  the  fact  that  many  snakes  like  to  establish  them- 
selves in  the  roots  of  trees,  especially  in  those  of  the  sandal-wood  tree. 

^  This  is  mentioned  by  Colonel  Sleeman. 


S3^  Worship  of  the   Tulasl, 

In  Blrbhum  the  entire  population  does  homage  once  a  year 
to  a  cluster  of  three  trees  in  the  jungle,  which  are  supposed  to 
be  the  abodes  of  as  many  demons  ^  In  the  Madura  district 
there  is  a  solitary  Mimosa  tree,  growing  near  a  tank.  This 
tree  always  has  numerous  pieces  of  rag  and  cloth  tied  to  its 
branches.  The  explanation  given  by  the  peasantry  is  that  a 
traveller  was  once  found  dead  near  the  tank  and  that  his  spirit 
has  become  a  malignant  demon  which  resides  in  the  tree  and 
requires  to  be  propitiated  by  offerings  ^. 

Of  course,  however,  adoration  paid  to  the  demons  in  such 
trees  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  worship  of  plants  and 
trees  which  are  themselves  deities,  or  are  in  themselves  per- 
meated by  the  essence  of  certain  deities. 

For  instance,  I  need  scarcely  here  repeat  that  early  in  the 
Vedic  period  the  Soma  plant  was  personified,  and  made  an 
object  of  general  adoration  (see  p.  12).  It  was  not  merely 
the  abode  of  divinity,  but  itself  a  god. 

Then  just  as  the  divine  cow  Surabhi,  granting  all  desires, 
and  the  typical  horse  Uccaih-sravas  arose  out  of  the  ocean 
when  churned  for  the  production  of  certain  valuable  objects^ 
so  arose  also  a  divine  tree  called  Parijata  (see  p.  168),  which 
afterwards  became  the  property  of  the  god  Indra,  and  was 
transferred  to  his  heaven.  This  tree  was  called  Kalpa- 
druma,  as  granting  all  desire  to  those  who  did  homage  to  its 
divinity.  So  in  the  Sakuntala  the  trees  of  the  sacred  grove 
are  described  as  yielding  beautiful  robes  and  costly  ornaments 
for  the  adornment  of  the  heroine  (see  my  translation,  p.  99). 

Moreover,  just  as  a  portion  of  the  godhead  or  essence  of 
Vishnu  descended  in  the  fish,  the  tortoise,  and  the  boar,  so 
certain  plants  are  embodiments  of  portions  of  the  essence 
of  particular  deities. 

^  See  Hunter's  'Annals  of  Rural  Bengal,'  p.  131. 

"^  Mr.  Walhouse  states  that  he  saw  this  tree.  So  also  the  tombs  of 
Musalman  saints  are  often  encircled  by  upright  poles,  to  which  are 
fastened  streamers  of  many-coloured  rags. 


Worship  of  the   Tulasi.  ^tH 

For  example,  the  TulasT,  or  holy  Basil  (popularly  Tulsi, 
botanically  Ocymuvi  Sanction),  is  not  merely  sacred  to  Vishnu 
or  to  his  wife  LakshmT ;  it  is  pervaded  by  the  essence  of 
these  deities,  and  itself  worshipped  as  a  deity  and  prayed  to 
accordingly.  Many  regard  the  Tulasi  as  a  metamorphosis  of 
Slta,  wife  of  Vishnu's  incarnation  Rama-candra ;  others 
identify  this  plant  with  RukminT,  wife  of  Krishna ',  while 
others  hold  it  to  be  an  embodiment  of  all  the  deities  together. 
It  is  certain  that  in  whatever  light  regarded,  the  Tulasi  is  the 
object  of  more  adoration  than  any  other  plant  at  present 
worshipped  in  India,  and  the  following  prayer  is  often  ad- 
dressed to  it : — '  I  adore  that  Tulasi  in  whose  roots  are  all  the 
sacred  places  of  pilgrimage,  in  whose  centre  are  all  the  deities, 
and  in  whose  upper  branches  are  all  the  Vedas^.' 

Possibly  its  sanitary  properties  may  have  been  the  original 
cause  of  the  homage  it  receives.  Its  leaves  are  believed  to 
heal  the  sick,  and  to  be  a  remedy  against  the  poison  of 
serpents  ^. 

But  the  crreat  estimation  in  which  the  Tulasi  is  held  is  best 
indicated  by  the  fact  that  it  is  to  be  found  in  almost  every 
respectable  Hindu  household  throughout  India.  It  is  a  small 
shrub,  not  too  big  to  be  cultivated  in  a  good-sized  flower-pot, 
and  often  placed  in  rooms.  Generally,  however,  it  is  planted  in 
the  court-yard  of  a  well-to-do  man's  house,  with  a  space  round 
it  for  reverential  circumambulation.  In  real  fact  the  Tulasi  is 
par  excellence  a  domestic  divinity,  or  rather,  perhaps,  a  woman's 
divinity.  The  women  of  India  are,  unhappily,  still  shut  out 
from  most  of  the  avenues  that  lead  to  enlightenment.     The 


'  In  Kalidfisa's  celebrated  drama  VikramorvasT,  the  nymph  UrvaSi 
is  metamorphosed  into  a  creeping  plant,  just  as  Daphne  was  into  a 
laurel  and  the  sisters  of  Phaethon  into  poplars. 

2  Yan-mule  sarva-tirthani  yan-madhye  sarva-devataV  |  yad-agre  sarva- 
vedas-ca  TulasTm  tani  namamy  aham. 

3  Colonel  Yule  informs  me  that  the  Basil  is  also  venerated  in  Sicily 
for  its  sanitary  properties.  The  inhabitants  keep  it  in  the  windows 
of  their  houses. 


334  Worship  of  the  Ttdasi. 

great  majority  are  unable  to  read  and  write  their  own  mother- 
tongue  ;  yet,  like  the  women  in  other  countries,  they  are  far 
more  religious  than  the  men.  How  can  it  be  matter  of 
wonder,  therefore,  if  their  religion  takes  the  form  of  un- 
mitigated superstition  ?  The  ancient  law-giver  Manu  affirms 
that  women  were  created  to  be  mothers  and  men  to  be 
fathers,  and  that  religious  rites  ought  to  be  performed  by 
husbands  with  their  wives  (IX.  96).  But  in  the  present  day 
women  perform  their  religious  services  apart  from  their  hus- 
bands. Nor  is  this  surprising,  for  as  a  rule  all  their  religion 
consists  in  walking  round  the  TulasI  plant — considered  as  a 
form  of  either  Vishnu's  wife  Lakshml  or  of  Rama's  faithful 
wife  Sita,  or  of  Krishna's  wife  RukminI — in  saying  prayers  to 
it,  or  placing  offerings  of  flowers  and  rice  before  it. 

In  a  central  space  in  most  of  the  villages  I  visited  in  India, 
I  noticed  a  small  raised  platform  of  rough  masonry  on  which 
grew  a  Pipal  tree  and  a  TulasI  shrub,  and  on  particular 
occasions  I  observed  poor  women,  who  were  probably  not 
rich  enough  to  possess  the  TulasI  plant  in  their  own  houses, 
performing  circumambulation  round  the  village  shrub.  In 
one  village,  especially,  I  watched  a  woman  who  was  in  the 
act  of  walking  108  times  round  the  sacred  plant  With  her 
right  shoulder  always  turned  towards  it\  Her  simple  object, 
no  doubt,  was  to  propitiate  the  goddess  with  a  view  to 
securing  long  life  for  her  husband  and  a  large  family  of 
sons  for  herself. 

I  should  note  that  as  animals  are  made  to  eo  throupfh 
the  ceremonial  of  marriage  (see  p.  327),  so  also  are  plants. 
The  ceremony  of  marrying  the  TulasI  shrub  to  the  idol  of 
the  youthful  Krishna  takes  place  annually  in  every  Hindu 
family  in  the  month  Karttika.  In  Western  India  an  idol  of 
the  young  Krishna  is  often  brought  in  procession  from  the 


'  Hence  this  reverential  circumambulation  is  called  pradakshina.     It 
must  follow  the  course  of  the  sun,  or  all  its  efficacy  is  destroyed. 


Worship  of  the  Pippala  or  Asvattha.         335 

house  of  one  of  the  Vallabhriofirya  Mahfirajas  (sec  p.  136), 
to  some  rich  man's  residence  where  the  TulasT  is  kept. 
The  idol  is  placed  in  a  gorgeous  palanquin  and  followed 
by  a  long  train  of  attendants.  Then  the  marriage  festivities 
are  celebrated  with  great  pomp  and  pageantry  at  the  cost 
of,  perhaps,  several  thousand  rupees. 

Similarly  in  other  parts  of  India  the  TulasI  is  married  to 
the  black  Sala-grama  pebble  (see  p.  69),  which  even  more 
than  the  idol  represents  the  god  Krishna,  for  the  god  is 
present  in  the  stone,  even  without  consecration. 

Colonel  Sleeman  describes  a  marriage  of  this  kind.  There 
was  a  great  procession  of  eight  elephants,  200  camels,  and 
400  horses.  The  pebble-bridegroom  was  placed  on  the 
leading  elephant  sumptuously  decorated,  and  about  100,000 
persons  were  present  at  the  nuptials.  In  harmony  with 
this  practice  it  is  usual  to  maintain  the  supposed  matrimonial 
union  between  the  TulasT  and  Krishna  by  keeping  a  leaf 
of  the  plant  always  resting  on  the  Sala-grama  stone. 

The  marriage  of  other  trees — as  of  a  mango  with  a 
tamarind,  or  of  a  mango  with  a  jasmine  (compare  my 
translation  of  Sakuntala,  p.  17) — is  not  unfrequently  celebrated 
in  India  with  similar  rejoicings. 

The  next  most  noteworthy  example  of  sacred  plant-life 
in  India  is  certainly  the  Pippala  or  Asvattha  tree  (popularly 
Pipal,  botanically  the  Fiats  Religiosa,  or  holy  fig-tree).  This 
also  is  held  to  be  a  most  holy  tree.  It  has  a  divine  personality 
of  its  own.  It  is  occupied  by  the  essence  of  the  god 
Brahma \  and  is  sometimes  invested  with  the  sacred  thread, 
as  if  it  were  a  Brahman,  all  the  ceremonies  of  investiture 
(Upanayana)    being    performed    over    it.      The    mysterious 


^  Others  say  that  the  PTpal  is  pervaded  by  the  three  gods  Brahm.n, 
Vishnu,  and  Siva,  but  especially  by  the  latter  in  his  Krishna  manifesta- 
tion. In  the  Bhagavad-glta  Krishna  says—'  I  am  Asvattha  among  the 
trees.'  It  is  believed  that  spirits  delight  to  sit  in  the  branches  of  this 
tree  and  listen  to  the  rustling  of  the  leaves. 


336         Worship  of  the  Biha  a7id  other  trees. 

rustling  of  its  tremulous  leaves,  which  resemble  those  of 
the  poplar,  is  no  doubt  one  cause  of  the  superstitious  awe 
with  which  this  tree  is  regarded.  Its  roots  also  display  a 
kind  of  miraculous  power  of  undermining  thick  walls,  and 
houses  built  of  the  strongest  masonry,  causing  in  this  way 
the  most  serious  damage  to  property.  Yet  no  native  of 
India  would  venture  to  cut  down  or  in  any  way  injure  or 
interfere  with  the  growth  of  this  tree.  It  is  remarkable, 
too,  that  no  native  would  venture  to  tell  an  untruth  or  deviate 
from  the  strictest  rectitude  of  conduct  while  standing  under  a 
Pipal  tree.  The  following  amusing  circumstance  illustrative  of 
this  point  came  to  my  knowledge  when  I  was  in  India  : — 

A  certain  magistrate,  well  known  for  his  energy  and  good 
nature,  knowing  that  all  Hindus  regard  it  as  a  work  of 
immense  religious  merit  to  plant  these  trees,  hit  upon  the 
clever  idea  of  trying  to  conciliate  the  good-will  of  the  inhabitants 
of  his  district  by  planting  some  Pipal  trees  in  the  market- 
place of  a  large  town  where  a  number  of  traders  were  in 
the  habit  of  transacting  their  business.  This  he  accordingly 
proceeded  to  do,  fully  expecting  to  entitle  himself  to  their 
gratitude,  but  imagine  his  surprise  when  a  deputation  of 
these  traders  made  its  appearance  one  day  and  entreated 
him  to  desist,  urging  with  the  most  naive  candour  that  their 
business  could  not  be  carried  on  without  a  certain  amount 
of  deception,  and  that  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Pipal  trees 
would  paralyze  all  their  negotiations  \ 

The  third  most  sacred  tree  in  India  is  the  Bilva  or  Vilva 
(popularly  called  Bel,  botanically  Aigle  Mannclos,  or  wood- 
apple).  Its  leaf  is  of  a  triple  form — with  three  leaflets — and 
probably  on  that  account  consecrated  to  Siva  with  his  triple 

*  In  the  same  way,  although  the  telling  of  untruths  for  the  good  of 
one's  caste  or  village  is  justifiable  under  certain  circumstances — as,  for 
example,  the  saving  of  life — no  native  would  venture  to  tell  a  falsehood 
with  a  piece  of  gold  in  his  mouth.  (Compare  Manu  VIII.  I03,  104.)  In 
all  countries  a  loose  code  of  morality  prevails  in  regard  to  shielding  caste- 
fellows  and  companions  by  untruthful  statements. 


Worship  of  tJie  Bilva  and  other  trees.         337 

functions.  Offerings  of  these  leaves  are  constantly  placed 
on  the  Liiiga  and  on  the  Ikill  (sec  last  line  of  p.  90). 

Of  other  holy  trees  and  plants,  the  Vata  or  Banyan 
(popularly  Var  for  Vad,  botanically  Ficus  Indicd)  is  sacred  to 
Krda  or  Time.  This  and  the  Plpal  tree  already  described  arc 
supposed  to  enjoy  a  kind  of  immortality.  When  a  man 
plants  cither  of  these  trees  he  repeats  a  prayer  to  the 
following  effect : — '  May  I  abide  in  heaven  as  many  years 
as  this  tree  continues  growing  on  the  earth.'  The  method 
by  which  the  Banyan  tree  propagates  itself  is  too  well 
known  to  require  description.  A  tree  of  this  kind  called 
the  Kablr-Var,  on  the  banks  of  the  Narbada  near  Broach, 
continued  multiplying  itself  every  year  by  sending  down  roots 
from  its  branches  till  it  became  a  forest  capable  of  sheltering 
an  army  of  7000  men.  This  tree,  though  gradually  decaying \ 
is  still  at  particular  seasons  a  great  resort  of  pilgrims. 

Again,  in  the  underground  passage  of  the  Allahabad  fort 
there  is  the  stump  of  a  tree  called  the  Akshaya-vata,  or 
'  undecaying  Banyan/  which  once  overhung  the  river  and 
is  said  to  be  the  same  as  that  mentioned  by  the  Chinese 
traveller  Hiouen  Tschang.  Whether  this  be  the  real  tree 
or  not,  it  is  still  an  attractive  rendezvous  for  pilgrims,  and 
was  formerly  a  favourite  place  for  committing  suicide.  Hun- 
dreds have  at  different  times  thrown  themselves  from  that 
overhanging  stem  into  the  river.  When  I  visited  the  place 
I  could  detect  no  life  in  what  appeared  to  me  a  mere  decaying 
stump.  I  was  gravely  informed  by  the  priest  who  accompanied 
me  that  a  further  underground  passage  conducts  from  the  tree 
to  Laksha-griha  (Lachfi-gir),  the  '  lac-house,'  twenty  miles 
distant  on  the  Ganges,  and  again  another  thence  to  Benares. 

^  At  any  rate  it  had  lost  its  forest  character  when  I  visited  Broach 
in  1876.  It  was  not  the  pilgrimage  season,  and  only  one  solitary 
devotee  then  occupied  a  hut  under  one  of  the  branches.  The  tree  is 
believed  to  have  grown  from  a  twig  which  the  sage  Kabir  used  as  a 
tooth-brush  and  then  threw  away  as  impure. 

Z 


338         Worship  of  the  Bilva  and  0 titer  trees. 

With  reference  to  the  long  hfe  of  the  Pipal  tree,  I  may 
mention  that  when  I  visited  Bodh-Gaya,  six  miles  distant 
from  the  city  of  Gaya,  I  saw  growing  there  on  a  terrace 
behind  the  celebrated  tower-like  Buddhist  monument  said 
to  be  more  than  2,000  years  old,  a  very  old  Pipal  which 
is  alleged  to  be  the  identical  Bo-tree  (Bodhi-druma)  under 
which  the  great  Buddha  attained  supreme  knowledge  five 
centuries  B.C.  No  doubt  it  is  many  hundred  years  old,  but  a 
succession  of  trees  is  secured  by  planting  new  shoots  inside 
the  old  decaying  stem.  An  off-shoot  from  the  tree  was 
conveyed  in  the  time  of  Asoka  (nearly  three  hundred  years 
B.C.)  to  Aniruddha-pura  in  Ceylon,  and  its  descendant  is 
said  to  be  still  growing  there. 

Of  the  other  trees,  the  Asoka  (botanically  Jonesia  Asoka) 
is  sacred  to  Siva,  the  Arka  or  sun-plant  to  the  Sun  (Surya), 
while  the  Sam!  or  Acacia  is  a  goddess  on  her  own  account 
and  is  supposed  to  contain  fire^. 

The  Durva  grass  (popularly  Panic  grass,  botanically 
Panicmn  Dactylon)  is  sacred  to  Ganesa. 

But  of  all  the  grasses  the  Kusa  or  Darbha  [Poa  Cyno- 
suroides)  is  the  holiest.  It  is  used  at  all  religious  ceremonies 
and  strewn  on  the  ground  before  all  sacrificial  rites ;  it  sanctifies 
the  soil,  forms  the  most  sacred  of  all  seats,  cleanses  everything 
it  touches^  purifies  the  impure,  and  when  wound  around  the 
fingers  makes  them  fit  to  engage  in  the  most  solemn  rites. 

The  lotus  (padma)  on  the  other  hand — which  is  constantly 
alluded  to  in  Indian  poetry ^ — is  not  so  directly  worshipped, 
but  has  perhaps  more  sacred  associations  connected  with  it 
than  any  other  flower.     The  Creator — Brahma  himself — was 

^  The  following  prayer  is  addressed  to  the  SamT  tree  : — SamI  sama- 
yate  papam  Sami  ^atru-vinasinl,  '  the  Sami  removes  guilt,  the  Sam!  is 
the  destroyer  of  enemies.' 

^  It  is  curious  that  the  rose  is  scarcely  ever  mentioned  in  Indian 
literature,  though  it  is  the  favourite  flower  of  Persia.  In  point  of  fact 
the  rose  is  not  indigenous  in  India,  though  found  in  the  Himalaya 
mountains. 


Worship  of  iMakrial  and  Natural  Objects.    339 

born  in  the  lotus  which  sprang  from  tlic  navel  of  Vishnu, 
and  the  goddess  Lakshml  arose  out  of  the  ocean  holding 
a  lotus  in  her  hand.  She  is  moreover  connected  with  the 
lotus  in  other  ways,  and,  according  to  another  legend, 
appeared  at  the  creation  floating  over  the  water  on  the 
expanded  petals  of  a  lotus-flower. 

The  Amra  or  Mango,  the  Nimba  or  Nim,  the  Bakula 
[Miniusops  Elciigi),  and  the  Anialakl  [Eviblic  Myrobatau) 
are  also  sacred  trees.  Some  Pandits  assert  that  the  Amra 
is  an  incarnation  of  the  god  of  love. 

Of  all  fruits  the  cocoa-nut  (narikela)  is  perhaps  the  most 
sacred.  It  is  called  the  fruit  of  the  goddess  of  prosperity 
(SrI-phala).  The  custard  apple  is  the  fruit  of  Slta  (Sita-phala). 

Worship  of  Material  and  Natural  Objects. 

The  worship  of  inanimate  natural  objects  opens  out  a  wide 
field  of  inquiry.  I  can  only  direct  attention  to  some  of  the 
most  interesting  and  important  phases  of  the  subject. 

We  must  bear  in  mind  that  objects  which  are  inanimate  to 
us  are  animate  to  the  Hindus.  According  to  their  belief  every 
material  or  natural  object  may  have  a  soul.  In  fact  the  same 
doctrine  of  metempsychosis  which  has  forced  itself  upon  us 
throughout  our  investigations  into  Hindu  religious  thought, 
meets  us  again  here.  The  soul  of  a  man  in  whom  the  dark 
quality  (tamas,  see  p.  36)  dominates  is  liable  to  pass  into 
inert  (jacla)  motionless  matter  (see  INIanu  XII.  9,  42 \  and  to 
occupy  a  rock^  a  stone,  a  post,  or  any  similar  material  form. 
Even  the  divine  Soul  may  infuse  itself  into  images  and  objects 
of  stone,  metal,  and  wood,  into  idols  such  as  those  of  Krishna, 
Rama  and  Durga,  into  symbols  like  the  Liiiga  and  Yoni,  or 
into  pebbles  like  the  Sala-grama  (sometimes  written  Sfdi- 
grama)  and  Bana-liiiga  (see  p.  69).  And  it  does  this  not 
merely  in  its  character  of  a  universal  Soul  pervading  all  matter. 
It  is  present  in  a  special  manner  in  all  such  material  forms. 

But  it  is  to  be  observed  that  material  objects  which  are  thus, 

Z  2 


340    Worship  of  Material  a7id  Natural  Objects. 

as  it  were,  animated  and  endowed  with  personal  souls,  do  not 
necessarily,  when  worshipped,  become  mere  fetishes.  Fetishism 
is  the  religion  of  the  childhood  of  the  human  race.  A  child 
makes  a  fetish  of  a  doll,  or  a  ball,  or  any  plaything  when  it 
endows  it  with  personality  and  addresses  it  as  if  it  were  alive. 
A  savage  makes  a  fetish  of  a  lucifer  match  when,  firmly  be- 
lieving it  to  be  occupied  by  a  spirit,  he  tries  to  bring  that 
spirit  under  his  own  control.  In  the  same  way  he  may  make 
fetishes  of  his  tools  or  weapons — of  his  axe,  his  knife,  or  his 
bow — or  of  idols  of  wood  or  stone. 

But  a  fetish,  as  Sir  John  Lubbock  has  pointed  out,  is  not 
necessarily  an  object  of  worship.  It  is  only  worshipped  if  it 
answers  prayers  or  confers  benefits.  If  it  appears  to  neglect 
the  interests  of  its  possessor,  it  is  itself  neglected,  and  if 
misfortunes  occur  it  is  abused  or  ill-treated.  In  short,  it  is 
essential  to  the  idea  of  a  fetish  that,  consisting  in  the  first 
instance  of  some  peculiar  form  of  material  object  with  a 
distinct  individuality  and  special  character  of  its  own,  it 
should  be  occupied  by  a  spirit  devoted  to  the  interests  of  the 
person  possessing  it  and  pledged,  like  the  genius  of  Aladdin's 
lamp,  to  execute  his  behests.  Hence,  any  stone  idol  which, 
in  common  with  a  number  of  other  idols,  represents  a  deity 
invariably  held  in  honour  is  not  a  fetish  in  the  proper  sense 
of  the  term. 

It  is  difficult,  however,  to  draw  any  hard  and  fast  line,  and 
to  say  where  fetishism  ends  and  a  higher  form  of  religion 
begins ;  and  it  is  certain  that  much  true  fetishism  and  much 
of  a  kind  of  half-fetishism  co-exist  with  higher  religious  ideas 
in  most  of  the  religions  of  the  world. 

I  certainly  believe  it  to  be  a  fact  that  in  India  some 
images  (such  as  those  of  Khandoba)  are  exposed  to  actual 
ill-treatment,  when  any  great  calamity  occurs  which  is  attri- 
buted to  the  neglect  of  the  gods  they  represent. 

And  it  must  be  admitted  that  what  may  be  called  Fetish 
ideas   are   found    running   through   the  whole  of  Hinduism. 


Worship  of  the  Sun.  341 

For  instance,  in  Atharva-vcda  (XVIII.  4.  •-;)  the  sacrificial 
ladles,  the  oblation,  the  sacrificial  grass  (IV.  ^tS-  3-6;  XIX, 
32.  9),  and  even  the  remains  of  the  sacrifice  arc  described  as 
possessing  divine  powers.  We  know,  too,  that  on  particular 
holy  days  and  festive  occasions,  the  merchant  worships  his 
books,  the  writer  his  inkstand,  the  husbandman  his  plough, 
the  weaver  his  loom,  the  carpenter  his  axe,  chisel,  and  tools, 
and  the  fisherman  his  net.  Every  object  that  benefits  its 
possessor  and  helps  to  provide  him  with  a  livelihood  becomes 
for  the  time-being  his  fetish.  Nevertheless,  I  doubt  whether 
the  religion  of  the  Aryan  Hindus  has  ever  shown  any  great 
tendency  to  lapse  into  the  worst  forms  of  fetish-worship,  such 
as  those  which  undoubtedly  prevailed  among  the  aboriginal 
inhabitants,  and  are  common  everywhere  among  uncultivated 
races.  Placed  in  the  midst  of  striking  physical  phenomena 
and  feeling  themselves  surrounded  by  mighty  material  forces, 
the  Aryans  on  their  arrival  in  India  were  simple  nature- 
worshippers,  and  those  natural  objects  and  natural  forces 
which  had  motion  appeared  to  them  more  especially  instinct 
with  divinity.  Hence  the  Sun,  the  Moon,  Fire,  Wind  and 
the  Waters  were  the  chief  deities  in  Vedic  times  (see  p.  16). 

Worship  of  the  Sun. 

Without  doubt  the  great  luminary  to  which  the  world  owes 
light,  heat,  and  vegetation  has  always  been  one  of  the  earliest 
objects  of  the  world's  adoration.  In  the  Rig-veda  (X.  HS.  1 1) 
the  Sun  is  said  to  be  a  son  of  Aditi,  and  has  two  chief 
names — Siirya  ("HAtos)  and  Savitri  (p.  16) — both  significant 
of  his  generative  power.  Probably  his  more  ancient  title 
was  Praja-pati,  '  lord  of  creatures.'  He  is  represented  as  a 
golden  deity  borne  along  in  a  chariot  drawn  by  seven  ruddy 
horses  or  mares,  and  his  charioteer  is  the  Dawn.  By  his 
wife  Samjua  he  had  twin  children,  the  Asvins  (p.  9),  who  arc 
called  heavenly  physicians.    The  Sun  himself  is  also  described 


342  Worship  of  the  Sun. 

as  a  healer  of  diseases.     In  the  Epic  poems  he  is  'the  eye  of 
the  world  '  and  '  the  soul  of  all.' 

Passing  on  to  medieval  times,  it  is  clear  that  in  the  days  of 
Sahkara  there  were  distinct  sects  of  Sun-worshippers ;  that  is 
to  say,  a  large  number  of  persons  existed  who  adored  the 
Sun  as  their  exclusive  divinity.     They  were  divided,  as  we 
learn  from  the  Sahkara-vijaya  (chap.  13),  into  six  sub-sects  as 
follow: — T.  Worshippers  of  the  rising  Sun  as  identified  with 
Brahma.     2.  Worshippers  of  the  meridian  Sun  as  identified 
with  Siva.     3.  Worshippers  of  the  setting  Sun  as  identified 
with  Vishnu.     4.  Worshippers  of  the  Sun  in  all  three  of  the 
above  phases  as  identified  with  the  Tri-murti  (p.  45).    5.  Wor- 
shippers of  the  Sun  regarded  as  a  material  being  in  the  form 
of  a  man  with  a   golden  beard  and  golden  hair^     Zealous 
niembers  of  this  sect  refused  to  eat  anything  in  the  morning 
till  they  had  seen  the  Sun  rise.     6.  Worshippers  of  an  image 
of  the  Sun  formed  in  the  mind.     These  spent  all  their  time  in 
meditating  on  the  Sun.     They  were  in  the  habit  of  branding 
circular  representations  of  his  disk  on  their  foreheads,  arms, 
and  breasts. 

Coming  now  to  modern  times,  we  find  that,  although  the 
sect  of  Sun-worshippers  has  apparently  died  out  and  although 
the  Sun-god  has  few  temples  and  images  like  those  of  Siva 
or  Vishnu,  he  still  continues  to  be  the  object  of  universal 
adoration.  Every  Hindij — be  he  a  Saiva  or  Vaishnava,  or  to 
whatever  sect  he  may  belong — does  homage  to  the  rising 
luminary  every  morning  of  his  life  by  repeating  the  Gayatrl 
or  holiest  text  of  the  Veda  (Rig-veda  III.  62.  10),  a  prayer 
really  addressed  not  so  much  to  the  orb  of  the  Sun  as  to  its 
vivifying  essence  (see  p.  1 9). 

It  certainly  surprised   me  that   I   saw  so  few   temples  or 

^  It  is  remarkable  that  the  Hindus  talk  of  the  god  in  the  Sun  (called 
by  them  Surya-Narayana)  rather  than  of  the  man  in  the  Moon.  The 
spots  in  the  Sun  are  supposed  to  give  the  idea  of  a  man's  face,  while 
those  in  the  Moon  are  compared  to  the  markings  on  a  rabbit. 


WorsJiip  of  the  Moon.  343 

shrines  dedicated  to  the  Sun  in  any  part  of  India.  His  most 
celebrated  temple  was  at  Konarak  (for  Konarka, '  corner-sun  ') 
in  Orissa.  It  is  said  that  a  sum  equal  to  twelve  years' 
revenues  of  Orissa  was  spent  on  this  temple.  Yet  it  is  now 
deserted  and  in  ruins.  I  visited  a  well-known  sacred  temple 
of  the  Sun  at  Gaya  near  to  a  tank  consecrated  to  the  same 
luminary.  No  one  appeared  to  be  worshipping  in  the  shrine, 
but  I  observed  rude  images  of  the  circular  disk  of  the  Sun 
made  of  red  cotton  affixed  to  the  walls  above  the  door-way. 
I  was  informed  that  women  are  in  the  habit  of  placing  these 
symbols  there  as  offerings. 

Worship  of  the  Moon. 

Passing  from  the  Sun  to  the  Moon,  we  find  that  the  latter 
seems  never  to  have  had  any  exclusive  adorers  in  India.  Yet 
like  the  Sun  the  Moon  is  often  regarded  as  one  of  the  nine 
planets,  and  is  treated  as  a  male  deity.  In  the  Puranas  he  is 
said  to  be  borne  along  in  a  chariot  with  three  wheels  drawn 
by  ten  horses.  Poets  are  never  tired  of  alluding  to  the 
Moon's  beauty,  its  brilliancy  being  far  greater  in  India  than 
in  Europe;  but  the  only  worship  it  receives  in  the  present 
day  is  in  conjunction  with  the  Sun  and  the  other  planets. 

The  sphere  of  the  Moon  is  sometimes  regarded  as  the 
abode  of  the  spirits  of  deceased  ancestors  (Pitris);  and  its 
orb  is  usually  held  to  consist  of  sixteen  digits  (Kalas),  which 
are  composed  of  nectar  (amrita)  supplied  to  it  from  the  sun 
for  the  support  of  the  gods.  In  Rig-veda  X.  85.  5  there  is  an 
allusion  to  the  gods  drinking  up  the  nectar  and  so  causing  the 
Moon  to  wane. 

The  name  Soma;  which  first  belonged  to  the  plant  only, 
came  to  be  applied  to  the  Moon  in  post-vedic  m)'thology, 
traces  of  this  application  being  also  observable  in  Rig-veda 
X.  85.  in  Atharva-veda  XI.  6,  7,  and  in  several  passages  of 
the    Satapatha-Brahmana.       In    the    later    mythology    (see 


-5  44  Worship  of  the  Planets. 


a 


Vishnu-purana  I.  22)  Brahma  is  said  to  have  appointed  Soma 
or  the  Moon  to  be  the  '  monarch  of  planets,  of  plants,  of 
sacrifices,  and  penances,'  and  one  of  the  names  of  the  Moon 
is  Oshadhi-pati  or  Oshadhisa, '  lord  of  plants  and  herbs,'  which 
he  is  supposed  to  nourish  with  his  light.  Again,  at  the 
churning  of  the  ocean,  as  described  in  the  Puranas,  after  all 
sorts  of  medicinal  plants  and  healing  herbs  had  been  thrown 
into  the  waters,  three  of  the  precious  things  produced  were 
the  Moon  (Soma),  nectar  (amrita),  and  spirituous  liquor  (sura), 
though  in  other  legends  this  nectar  is  said  to  be  preserved  in 
the  body  of  the  Moon,  or  even  to  constitute  its  substance. 
In  Manu  V.  96  Soma  is  called  one  of  the  eight  Loka-palas  or 
guardians  of  the  world. 

Worship  of  the  Planets. 

The  Sun  and  Moon,  Mercury  (Budha),  Venus  (Sukva), 
Mars  (Maiigala  or  Aiigaraka),  Jupiter  (Vrihaspati),  Saturn 
(Sani),  Rahu  and  Ketu  ^ — the  former  being  fabled  as  a  planet 
with  a  head  and  no  body,  the  latter  as  a  planet  with  a  body 
and  no  head — together  form  the  group  of  what  is  called  the 
Nava-graha,  nine  planets,  the  first  seven  giving  names  to  the 
days  of  the  week  2.  In  the  Puranas  they  are  all  represented 
as  deities  borne  in  cars.  Thus  the  car  of  Mars  is  of  gold 
drawn  by  eight  red  horses,  that  of  Jupiter  is  drawn  by  eight 
pale  horses,  that  of  Saturn  is  a  slow-going  car  drawn  by  pie- 
bald horses,  those  of  Rahu  and  Ketu  are  drawn  by  eight  dark 
horses.  Rahu  is  thought  to  have  a  spite  against  the  sun  and 
moon,  and  occasionally  displays  his  enmity  by  swallowing 
them  for  a  time  and  so  causing  eclipses,  while  Ketu  gives 
birth  to  an  awful  progeny  of  comets  and  fiery  meteors. 

^  These  are  sometimes  identified  with  the  Moon's  ascending  and 
descending  nodes. 

^  The  planets,  however,  are  variously  mentioned  as  five,  seven,  and 
nine  in  nmnber. 


Worship  of  the  Planets.  345 

The  whole  array  of  nine  kiminarics  constitutes  in  the  eyes 
of  every  Hindu  a  most  formidable  ^roup  of  deities,  whose 
power  over  every  living  person's  career  from  the  first  moment 
of  his  coming  into  the  world,  and  over  the  whole  course  of 
mundane  events,  no  one  for  an  instant  thinks  of  doubting. 
The  influences  of  Saturn,  Rahu  and  Ketu  are  all  supposed  to 
be  sinister,  and  these  planets  are  therefore  most  propitiated. 
If  they  are  in  the  ascendant  when  a  man  is  born  they  are  sure 
to  shorten  his  life  or  cause  him  trouble  of  some  kind.  Their 
anger,  therefore,  must  by  all  means  be  deprecated,  and  counter- 
acting influences  must  be  sought  for  by  astrologers  in  drawing 
up  horoscopes.  On  the  other  hand,  Jupiter,  Venus,  Mercury, 
Mars,  and  the  Sun  exert  favourable  influences  only,  and  the 
first  three  are  thought  to  be  special  sources  of  knowledge 
and  wisdom.  The  favour  of  all  must  be  conciliated  before 
marriages  and  other  auspicious  events  can  be  successfully 
accomplished. 

I  saw  a  celebrated  temple  dedicated  to  the  nine  planets  at 
Benares,  and  another  sacred  to  Saturn  and  to  the  bodiless 
Rahu.  Numbers  of  people  as  they  passed  these  temples  cast 
flowers  and  ofi"erings  before  the  images,  but  did  not  stop  to 
worship. 

The  Nakshatras,  or  twenty-seven  constellations  through 
which  the  Moon  passes  ^  and  which  separate  his  path  into 
twenty-seven  divisions,  as  the  signs  of  the  Zodiac  do  that 
of  the  Sun  into  twelve,  are  like  the  planets  regarded  in  the 
present  day  as  deities  who  exert  a  vast  influence  on  the 
destiny  of  men,  not  only  at  the  moment  of  their  entrance 
into  the  world,  but  during  their  whole  passage  through  it. 
These  formidable  constellations  are  consulted  at  births,  mar- 
riages, and  on  all  occasions  of  family  rejoicing,  distress,  or 


^  In  the  Rig-veda  the  word  Nakshatra  has  the  general  sense  of  a 
constellation.  In  the  Yajur  and  Atharva-veda  the  Nakshatras  are  dis- 
tinctly connected  with  the  path  of  the  Moon,  and  in  the  latter  (XIX.  8.  i ) 
their  number  is  given  as  twenty-eight. 


*> 


46  VVorship  of  Fire  and  Water. 


calamity.  No  one  undertakes  a  journey  or  any  important 
matter  except  on  days  which  the  aspect  of  the  Nakshatras 
renders  lucky  and  auspicious.  If  any  constellation  is  un- 
favourable, its  anger  must  by  all  means  be  appeased  by  a 
ceremony  called  Santi,  '  propitiation.' 

Worship  of  Fire  and  Water. 

The  worship  of  Fire,  like  that  of  the  Sun,  was,  as  we  have 
already  seen,  one  of  the  earliest  cults  of  India  (see  p.  9),  and 
Fire  is  still  a  general  object  of  homage  ^  Further  allusions 
to  this  homage  will  be  made  subsequently.  I  will  only  here 
draw  attention  to  the  remarkable  idea  prevalent  in  India  that 
fire  is  produced  from  water.  In  the  Veda  fire  is  called 
Apam-napat^  '  son  of  the  waters,'  and  this  name  is  also  once 
apphed  to  the  Sun  (I.  22.  6)  -.  Doubtless  the  idea  arose 
from  the  apparent  production  of  lightning  from  rain-clouds. 

Passing  on  to  the  worship  of  Water  ^,  especially  running 
water,  it  is  to  be  observed  that  river-water  is  everywhere 
throughout  India  held  to  be  instinct  with  divinity.  It  is  not 
merely  holy,  it  is  specially  pervaded  by  the  divine  essence. 
We  must,  however,  be  careful  to  distinguish  between  the 
mere  sacredness  of  either  fire  or  water  and  their  worship  as 
personal  deities. 

In  Rig-veda  X.  30,  X.  9,  VII.  47,  and  other  passages  of 
the  Veda,  the  Waters  are  personified,  deified,  and  honoured 
as   goddesses,   and    called    the    Mothers    of  the   earth.      In 

^  As  the  medium  of  bearing  the  sacrifice  to  heaven  it  is  always  sacred, 
even  when  not  worshipped  as  a  personal  god.  The  adoration  of  fire 
in  Assyria,  Phoenicia,  Persia,  and  other  countries  is  well  known.  No 
doubt  the  difficulty  of  generating  fire,  till  a  knowledge  of  chemistry 
introduced  lucifcr  matches,  led  to  its  adoration  among  uncivilized  tribes. 

'^  Some  German  scholars  see  a  connexion  between  Apam-napat  and 
Neptunus. 

•''  The  worship  of  water  is  by  no  means  confined  to  India,  as  the 
number  of  holy  wells  in  our  own  country  proves. 


Worship  of  Fire  and  ]Va(cr.  347 

X.  17.  10  their  purifying  power,  and  in  VT.  ,',0.  7  their  healing 
power,  is  celebrated.  They  cleanse  their  worshippers  from 
sin  and  untruthfulness  (I.  23.  22);  and,  as  noted  above,  they 
give  birth  to  Fire  (X.  2.  7,  X.  91.  6). 

Of  course  some  rivers  are  more  sacred  than  others,  and  as 
the  Ganges,  which,  according  to  later  mythology,  issues  from 
the  foot  of  Vishnu,  is  the  most  majestic,  so  it  is  the  holiest  and 
most  revered  of  all  rivers.  No  sin  too  heinous  to  be  removed, 
no  character  too  black  to  be  washed  clean  by  its  waters. 
Hence  the  countless  temples  with  flights  of  steps  lining  its 
banks ;  hence  the  array  of  priests,  called  '  Sons  of  the  Ganges,' 
sitting  on  the  edge  of  its  streams,  ready  to  aid  the  ablutions 
of  conscience-stricken  bathers,  and  stamp  them  as  white- 
washed when  they  emerge  from  its  waters.  Hence  also  the 
constant  traffic  carried  on  in  transporting  Ganges  water  in 
small  bottles  to  all  parts  of  the  country.  The  river  SarasvatI 
— called  the  purifier  in  Rig-veda  I.  3.  10— was  to  the  earlier 
Hindus  what  the  Ganges  was  to  the  later:  she  was  instinct 
with  divinity,  and  her  influence  permeated  the  writers  of  the 
Vedic  hymns.  Sometimes  she  is  identified  with  the  Vedic 
goddess  Vac',  speech,  and  invoked  as  the  patroness  of  science. 

The  river  Indus  (Sindhu)  is  also  celebrated  very  early  in 
the  Veda  (see  X.  75.  4). 

But  the  confluence  of  the  Ganges  with  the  Jumna  (Yamuna) 
and  SarasvatI  (supposed  to  flow  underground)  at  Allahabad 
(Prayaga)  is  perhaps  one  of  the  most  hallowed  spots  in  all 
India.  These  three  sacred  streams  form  a  sort  of  Tri-murti, 
or  trinity  of  rivers,  often  personified  as  goddesses,  and  called 
Mothers.  Then  other  celebrated  rivers— such  as  the  Godavarl 
(also  called  Goda  and  Vriddha-gaiiga,  '  the  ancient  Ganges'), 
Narbada  (properly  Narma-da,  '  bliss-giver,'  also  called  Reva), 
TaptI  (properly  Tapatl,  also  called  Tapi),  Sabarmati  (possibly 
for  SubhramatT),  Gandakl,  Kistna  (properly  Knshna),  Vena, 
Sarayu,  Turiga-bhadra  (called  the  Ganges  of  the  South),  and 
Kaverl — became  rivals  of  this  original  sacred  triad. 


34S  Worship  of  Fire  and  Water. 

The  Narbada  has  its  special  admirers,  who  exalt  it  even 
above  the  Ganges.  It  is  said  to  have  sprung  from  the  per- 
spiration of  the  god  Rudra  (p.  75).  '  One  day's  ablution,' 
they  say,  '  in  the  Ganges  frees  from  sin,  but  the  mere  sight 
of  the  Narbada  purifies  from  guilt.'  The  sanctity  of  the 
Ganges  will,  they  say,  cease  in  1895,  whereas  that  of  the 
Narbada  will  continue  for  ever.  Moreover,  the  sanctity  of 
the  Narbada  affects  all  water  thirty  miles  from  the  bank 
northward  and  eighteen  miles  southward.  Furthermore,  either 
bank  of  the  Narbada  may  be  used  for  burning  the  dead, 
whereas  only  the  northern  bank  of  the  Ganges  is  effectual 
for  that  purpose. 

Chapters  called  Mahatmyas,  assigning  special  sacredness 
to  particular  rivers,  and  extolling  the  virtue  of  their  waters, 
or  describing  their  consecration  by  gods  and  sages,  have  been 
at  various  times  introduced  into  the  Puranas.  On  the  other 
hand,  a  river  called  Karma-nasa,  '  destroyer  of  good  works,' 
which  falls  into  the  Ganges  not  very  far  from  Benares,  is  held 
to  be  the  reverse  of  sacred.  It  is  an  unholy  and  accursed 
stream,  and  if  a  man  touches  its  water  he  loses  all  the 
store  of  religious  merit  he  has  accumulated  for  years. 

And  here  we  may  note  that  the  whole  length  of  the  banks 
of  all  the  chief  rivers  of  India,  from  their  source  to  the  sea, 
is  regarded  as  holy  ground.  To  follow  their  course  on  foot 
is  considered  a  highly  meritorious  act.  A  pilgrim,  for  ex- 
ample, sets  out  from  the  source  of  the  Ganges,  at  Gaiigotri, 
and  walks  by  the  left  bank  of  the  river  to  its  mouth  at 
Gahga-sagara ;  then,  turning  round,  he  proceeds  by  the  right 
side  back  to  Gahgotrl,  whence  he  departed.  This  is  called 
Pradakshina,  or  Parikrama  of  the  river,  and  takes  six  years 
to  accomplish.  In  the  same  way  a  pilgrim  starts  from  the 
source  of  the  Narbada,  at  Amara-kantaka, — a  peak  of  the 
Vindhya  chain  in  Gondwana, — and  walks  to  the  mouth,  near 
Broach,  and  back.  This  takes  nearly  three  years.  The  rivers 
Godavari  and  Krishna  require  only  two  years  for  the  same 


Worship  of  Mountains:^  Rocks,  and  Stones.     349 

process.  As  these  rivers  often  pass  throu^di  wilil  country, 
the  pilgrims  who  perform  such  tasks  arc  exposed  to  many 
hardships.  Of  course,  the  merit  accumulated  is  in  proportion 
to  the  time  occupied  in  the  pilgriniar]^c  and  the  difTicult}-  of 
the  ground  traversed. 

The  sea  is  also  held  sacred,  and  on  special  occasions  pro- 
pitiated. When  any  one  is  compelled  to  take  a  voyage,  it 
is  not  uncommon  for  his  nearest  relatives  to  throw  milk  into 
the  sea  as  an  offerincr  to  the  waves. 


Worship  of  Monnfaius,  Rochs,  and  Stones. 

With  regard  to  the  worship  of  immovable  objects,  many 
mountains  and  hills  are  holy  ground.  Of  course  the  Hima- 
laya takes  the  lead.  It  is  personified  and  extolled  as 
a  god.  (See,  in  reference  to  this  point,  the  first  verses  of 
Kalidasa's  poem,  the  Kumara-sambhava.)  Among  other 
hills  regarded  as  consecrated  ground  are  Citra-kuta  (com- 
monly called  Chateerkot),  in  the  Banda  district,  Mount  Abu, 
and  Girnar  in  Kiithiawar  \ 

There  are  some  sand-hills  in  the  Satpura  range  dedicated 
to  Mahadeva,  supposed,  as  Mahakala,  to  preside  over  destruc- 
tion. From  a  rock  on  these  hills  many  youths  have  pre- 
cipitated themselves,  because  their  mothers,  when  childless, 
dedicated  their  first-born  sons  to  the  god.  This  mode  of 
suicide  is  called  Bhrigu-pata,  'throwing  one's  self  from  a 
precipice.'  It  was  once  equally  common  at  the  rock  of 
Girnar,  and  has  only  recently  been  prohibited. 

Particular  rocks  all  over  India  are  treated  as  divine.  They 
are  not  only  pervaded  by  the  divine  soul  of  the  Universe 
which  permeates  all  nature,  God  is  specially  present  in  them, 
just  as  he  is  in  the  Sala-grama  pebble  found  in  the  GandakI 

'  Citra-kuta  was  the  first  residence  of  Rama-dandra  after  his  banish- 
ment. Abu  (corrupted  from  Sanskrit  arbuda)  and  Girnar  are  hills  more 
particularly  celebrated  for  their  Jaina  temples. 


350     WorsJiip  of  Mountains,  Rocks,  and  Stones. 

river,  and  in  the  Bana-linga  found  in  the  Narbada  (see  p.  69). 
A  great  deal  of  fraud  is  practised  in  selling  these  stones.  If 
they  come  from  other  rivers  they  enjoy  no  special  presence  of 
the  deity.  A  simple  Bilva-leaf  offered  on  a  true  Bana-lihga 
brought  from  the  Narbada  is  an  act  of  enormous  merit 
(punya),  but  if  offered  on  a  spurious  pebble  is  inefficacious. 

I  might  continue  the  enumeration  of  sacred  objects  almost 
indefinitely,  but  enough  has  been  said  to  make  it  clear  that 
there  is  not  an  object  in  heaven  or  earth  which  a  Hindu  is 
not  prepared  to  worship — sun,  moon,  and  stars ;  rocks,  stocks, 
and  stones  ;  trees,  shrubs,  and  grass  ;  sea,  pools,  and  rivers  ; 
his  own  implements  of  trade  ;  the  animals  he  finds  most 
useful,  the  noxious  reptiles  he  fears ;  men  remarkable  for  any 
extraordinary  qualities — for  great  valour,  sanctity,  virtue,  or 
even  vice ;  good  and  evil  demons,  ghosts  and  goblins,  the 
spirits  of  departed  ancestors ;  an  infinite  number  of  semi- 
human  and  semi- divine  existences  ;  inhabitants  of  the  seven 
upper  and  the  seven  lower  worlds—  each  and  ail  come  in 
for  a  share  of  divine  honour  or  a  tribute  of  more  or  less 
adoration. 


CHAPTER   XIII. 

The  Hindu  Religion  in  Ancient  Family-life. 

The  title  of  a  deservedly  popular  sermon  by  a  well-known 
Scotch  divine  reminds  us  that  common  life  is  fhc  proper  field 
for  the  exercise  of  Christianity,  or,  in  other  words,  that  the 
religion  of  a  Christian  is  not  to  be  made  a  separate  duty,  but 
a  part  of  all  his  actions  at  all  times. 

Turning  to  India  wc  might  expect  to  find  a  difi*crent  doc- 
trine taught.     But  this  is  far  from  being  the  case. 

Without  doubt  it  must  be  admitted  that  the  actual  religious 
life  of  a  large  number  of  Hindus  is  a  complete  falling  away 
from  the  standard  set  up  in  their  sacred  works ;  but  it  is  not 
the  less  true  that  many  pious  and  earnest-minded  men  arc 
still  careful  to  impress  a  religious  character  on  every  act  and 
circumstance  of  their  domestic  life.  For,  whatever  estimate 
may  be  formed  of  the  nature  of  Indian  religious  life,  it  is  cer- 
tain that  a  genuine  Hindu  of  the  old  school  does  not  lead  two 
lives.  His  religion,  such  as  it  is,  may  truly  be  described  as 
bound  up  in  the  bundle  of  his  every-day  existence.  It  is  not, 
so  to  speak,  put  away  in  a  cabinet  during  working  days,  and 
taken  out  to  be  exhibited  publicly  on  solemn  occasions.  The 
religion  of  a  Hindu  is  his  constant  companion.  Nor  docs 
he  think  it  necessary,  as  a  Christian  does,  to  satisfy  the  claims 
of  a  corporate  as  well  as  of  a  personal  and  domestic  religion. 
Any  idea  of  congregational  religious  duties  has  no  place  in 
his  mind.  A  Hindu  never  enters  a  place  of  worship  with  the 
object  of  offering  up  common   pra}er  in   company  with   his 


52     The  Hindu  Religion  in  Ancient  Family-life. 


fcllovv-men.  He  has  no  conception  of  performing  the  kind 
of  religious  act  which  a  Christian  performs  when  he  '  goes  to 
church.'  Occasionally,  it  is  true,  and  on  stated  days,  he  visits 
idol  shrines.  But  he  does  so  with  no  idea  of  praying  with 
others,  or,  indeed,  of  praying  for  himself  in  the  Christian  sense 
of  the  word.  He  goes  to  the  temple  to  perform  what  is  called 
Darsana ;  that  is,  to  look  at  the  idol,  the  sight  of  which,  when 
duly  dressed  and  decorated  by  the  priest,  is  supposed  to  confer 
merit.  After  viewing  the  image  he  may  endeavour  to  pro- 
pitiate the  favour  or  avert  the  anger  of  the  god  it  represents 
by  prostrations  of  the  body,  repetitions  of  its  name,  or  pre- 
sentation of  offerings.  But  this  is  not  an  essential  duty.  His 
real  religion  is  an  affair  of  family  usage,  domestic  ritual,  and 
private  observance.  Not  that  his  domestic  worship  is  free 
from  priestly  interference.  Sacerdotalism  exerts  as  strong  a 
power  over  family  religion  in  India  as  it  does  in  other  coun- 
tries over  congregational  religion.  Every  incident,  every  cir- 
cumstance, every  operation  in  Indian  home  life  is  subject  to 
ecclesiastical  law.  Each  man  finds  himself  cribbed  and  con- 
fined in  all  his  movements,  bound  and  fettered  in  all  he  does 
by  the  most  minute  regulations.  He  sleeps  and  wakes,  dresses 
and  undresses,  sits  down  and  stands  up,  goes  out  and  comes 
in,  eats  and  drinks,  speaks  and  is  silent,  acts  and  refrains  from 
acting,  according  to  precise  rule.  And  the  action  of  the  priestly 
caste  commences  with  the  first  instant  of  his  unconscious  ex- 
istence as  a  living  organism.  From  that  moment  to  death, 
and  even  long  after  death,  every  Hindu  is  held  to  be  the  law- 
ful property  of  the  priests,  who  exact  fees  for  innumerable 
offices  performed  on  his  behalf. 

It  is  on  this  account  that  nearly  every  village  has  first 
its  religious  teacher  (Guru),  who  teaches  the  Vedic  Gayatrl  or 
the  initiatory  prayer  (p.  6i)  to  those  whose  caste  or  sect  re- 
quires them  to  repeat  it,  and  secondly  its  ceremonial  priest,  who 
serves  as  a  domestic  chaplain  (Purohita)  to  all  the  families  of 
the  village.      Not  a  single  religious  rite  can  be  performed 


Twelve  Ptiyificatory  Rites.  353 

without  this  latter  functionary,  and  though  other  priests  may- 
be asked  to  be  present  and  assist  at  some  of  the  ceremonies 
(sucli  as  marriage  and  initiation),  the  regular  village  priest 
must  always  take  the  lead  and  have  his  appointed  duties  and 
customary  fees.  In  fact  in  no  country  of  the  world  are 
domestic  religion  and  sacerdotalism  so  curiously  associated 
together  and  carried  to  such  extremes  as  in  India.  There  a 
complicated  religious  code  has  always  been  as  necessary  to 
the  priest  as  an  intricate  civil  code  to  the  lawyer.  It  has  sup- 
plied him  with  his  meat,  drink,  and  whole  means  of  livelihood. 

We  must,  however,  be  careful  not  to  speak  of  Brfdimanism 
and  Sacerdotalism  in  India  as  if  these  expressions  were  con- 
vertible terms.  Every  Brahman  is  not  a  priest,  though  every 
priest  is  a  Brahman.  The  Brahmans  are  simply  a  race  or  order 
of  men  divided,  like  many  other  societies,  into  clergy  and  laity, 
and  in  ancient  times  a  layman  did  many  religious  acts  which 
in  the  present  day  are  only  performed  by  the  aid  of  priests. 

To  begin,  then,  with  the  religious  life  of  the  family  in  ancient 
times. 

Twelve  purificatory  rites,  called  Sanskaras,  were  prescribed 
in  the  ancient  collections  of  domestic  rules  (Grihya-sutras)  and 
in  the  code  of  Manu  ;  for  the  purification  of  a  man's  whole 
nature — body,  soul,  and  spirit — from  the  taint  transmitted 
through  the  womb  of  an  earthly  mother.  They  were,  i.  Im- 
pregnation (Garbhadhana  or  Garbha-lambhana) ;  2.  Male-pro- 
duction (Purnsavana)  ;  3.  Hair-parting  (Simantonnayana) ; 
4.  Birth-ceremony  (Jata-karman);  5.  Name-giving  (Nama- 
karana) ;  6.  Carrying  out  (Nishkramana) ;  7.  Food-giving 
(Anna-prasana) ;  8  and  9.  Tonsure  or  shaving  and  cutting  off 
the  hair  ((!aula  or  Kshaura  and  Kesanta)^;  10.  Initiation 
(Upanayana) ;  11.  Return  from  the  house  of  the  preceptor 
(Samavartana) ;  12.  Marriage  (Vivrdia). 

*  Manu  places  (^aula  8th  and  Kesanta  loth,  with  Upanayana  between, 
but  the  first  two  may  be  taken  together  as  kindred  ceremonies. 

A  a 


354  Ifupregnation-rite. 

Some  account  of  these  twelve  ceremonies  ought  to  precede 
a  description  of  the  Hindu  householder's  daily  observances  ; 
for  no  one  whose  corporeal  frame  has  not  first  been  purified 
by  these  rites  is  held  qualified  to  perform  the  ordinary  religious 
duties  of  domestic  life. 

Turning  then  to  one  of  the  most  important  of  the  San- 
skaras,  marriage,  we  find  that  it  stands  last  in  the  order  of 
enumeration.  It  will  be  necessary,  however,  to  begin  by 
supposing  the  recent  union  of  a  young  couple  in  wedlock, 
so  that  every  one  of  the  Sanskaras — beginning  with  that 
which  is  believed  to  be  essential  to  the  purification  of  the 
human  embryo  from  its  earliest  origin  in  the  womb — may 
be  successively  described.  It  must  also  be  taken  for  granted 
that  the  newly-married  pair  in  ancient  times  were  of  good 
family,  that  they  were  bent  on  acting  up  to  the  precepts  of 
their  religion,  and  that  they  brought  with  them  to  their  own 
home  a  portion  of  the  sacred  fire  which  witnessed  their  union, 
and  which,  when  once  kindled  on  their  own  family  hearth, 
had  to  be  maintained  ever  afterwards  for  use  in  all  domestic 
ceremonies  and  sacrifices,  including  the  last  sacrifice  of  all, 
the  final  burning  of  their  own  bodies  at  death. 

The  first  Sanskara,  which  as  a  matter  of  course  followed 
immediately  on  every  matrimonial  union,  was  called  the  '  Im- 
pregnation-rite' (Garbhadhana).  In  ancient  times  no  bride- 
groom approached  the  bride  till  the  fourth  night  after  the 
completion  of  the  marriage  ceremony^.  Hence  this  first  rite 
was  sometimes  called  (Jaturthi-karma.  During  the  previous 
day  the  young  married  woman  was  made  to  look  towards  the 
sun,  or  in  some  way  exposed  to  its  rays.  In  the  evening  she 
was  required  to  bathe.  Her  husband  also  performed  his 
ablutions  and  went  through  other  prescribed  forms.     Before 


^  This  interval  is  prescribed  by  Gobhila,  but  not  by  others.  The 
present  interval  of  two,  three,  or  four  years  is  quite  unsupported  by  the 
authority  of  ancient  Sutra-writers  and  lawgivers. 


Malc-prodiiction   Ccrc))iony.  355 

approaching  his  wife  he  was  careful  to  secure  the  solemn  im- 
primatur of  religion  on  an  act  which  might  lead  to  the  intro- 
duction of  another  human  being  into  the  world.  1  It  therefore 
repeated  two  Mantras  or  texts  of  Rig-veda  X.  1 86,  the  first  of 
which  may  be  thus  translated: — 'Let  (all-pervading)  Vishnu 
prepare  her  womb  ;  let  the  Creator  shape  its  forms  ;  let  Praja- 
pati  be  the  Impregnator ;  let  the  Creator  give  the  embryo.' 

The  Impregnation-rite  was  followed  after  an  interval  of 
tlirce  months  by  that  called  '  Male-production' (Punisavana). 
This  is  not  unusual  even  in  the  present  day.  We  Euro- 
peans can  scarcely  understand  the  craving  of  Asiatic  parents 
for  the  birth  of  a  male  child.  The  very  word  for  a  son 
(put-tra)  is  fancifully  said  to  mean  one  who  delivers  a  parent 
from  a  hell  called  Put.  Whether  all  Hindu  married  men  in 
the  present  day  seriously  look  forward  to  punishment  in  a 
place  of  torment  hereafter  as  the  penalty  for  not  having  sons 
or  for  having  only  daughters  admits  of  question.  We  have 
seen,  however,  that  the  well-being  of  the  parent's  soul  after 
death  is  believed  to  depend  on  the  proper  performance  of  the 
Sraddha  ceremonies  by  a  son,  and  that  the  partition  of  the 
family  inheritance  is  by  law  made  dependent  on  the  due 
celebration  of  such  rites.  Hence  the  craving  for  sons  rather 
than  daughters. 

In  short,  a  son  is  to  every  pious  Hindu  the  first  and  last  of 
all  necessary  things.  Through  a  son  he  pajs  his  own  father 
the  debt  he  owes  him  for  his  own  life,  and  secures  similar 
payment  for  the  gift  of  life  bestowed  by  himself. 

What  says  the  Aitareya-Brfdimana  of  the  Rig-veda  (VII. 
3.  13)?  'When  a  father  sees  the  face  of  a  living  son  he  pays 
a  debt  in  him,  and  gains  imm.ortality.  The  pleasure  which  a 
father  has  in  his  son  exceeds  all  other  enjoyments.  His 
wife  is  a  friend,  his  daughter  an  object  of  compassion,  his 
son  shines  as  his  light  in  the  highest  world.'  What  says 
Manu  ?  '  A  man  is  perfect  when  he  consists  of  three— himself, 
his  wife,  and  his  son'  (VII.  3).     What  says  Yajuavalkya? 

A  a  2 


•^ 


56  Male-production  Ceremony. 


'  Immortality  in  future  worlds  and  heavenly  bliss  are  obtained 
by  means  of  sons,  grandsons,  and  great-grandsons.' 

A  story  is  told  in  some  Brahmana  of  a  certain  pious  man  of 
ascetical  temperament  who  determined  to  shirk  the  religious 
duty  of  taking  a  wife.  Quietly  skipping  over  the  second  pre- 
scribed period  of  life,  during  which  he  ought  to  have  become 
a  householder  (grihastha),  he  entered  at  once  upon  the  third 
period — that  is  to  say,  he  became  an  ascetic,  abjured  all 
female  society,  and  retired  to  the  woods.  Wandering  about 
one  day,  absorbed  in  meditation,  he  was  startled  by  an 
extraordinary  spectacle.  He  saw  before  him  a  deep  and 
apparently  bottomless  pit.  Around  its  edge  some  unhappy 
men  were  hanging  suspended  by  ropes  of  grass,  at  which  here 
and  there  a  rat  was  nibbling.  On  asking  their  history,  he 
discovered  to  his  horror  that  they  were  his  own  ancestors 
compelled  to  hang  in  this  unpleasant  manner,  and  doomed 
eventually  to  fall  into  the  abyss,  unless  he  went  back  into  the 
world,  did  his  duty  like  a  man,  married  a  suitable  wife,  and 
had  a  son,  who  would  be  able  to  release  them  from  their 
critical  predicament. 

It  is  not,  therefore,  difficult  to  understand  the  object  of  the 
'  Male-production'  ceremony  (Pumsavana).  It  was  performed 
in  the  third  month  of  gestation  and  before  the  period  of 
quickening.  According  to  Asvalayana  the  wife  was  to  keep 
a  solemn  fast.  She  was  then  fed  by  her  husband  with  two 
beans  and  a  grain  of  barley^  mixed  with  a  handful  of  curds, 
and  made  to  pray  three  times  for  the  production  of  male- 
offspring. 

A  further  supplementary  rite  for  the  prevention  of  mis- 
carriage was  customary  in  some  localities.  It  was  performed 
by  sprinkling  the  juice  of  a  stalk  of  fresh  Durba  grass  in  the 
wife's  right  nostril,  with  the  repetition  of  certain  Mantras. 
This  ceremony  was  called  Anavalopana  (or  Anavalobhana). 


*  Symbolical  of  the  Linga. 


Hair-parting.     Birth-ccrcmony,  357 

The  next  purificatory  rite  was  called  '  I  lair-parting  '  (Slman- 
tonnayana). 

First  an  oblation  was  made  in  fire,  with  repetition  of  the 
Vedic  texts  from  Atharva-vcda  VII.  17.  i,  Rig-veda  III. 
59.  I,  V.  25.  2,  II.  32.  4-5.  Then  the  woman  performed  her 
ablutions  in  pure  water;  fragrant  oil  was  poured  on  her  head, 
and  a  line  or  parting  (sTmanta)  was  drawn  three  times  through 
her  hair  from  the  forehead  upwards  with  three  stalks  of  Kusa 
grass  bound  together — the  three  sacred  words  called  Vya- 
hritis  (Bhur,  Bhuvar,  Svar)  and  the  hallowed  syllable  Om 
(a,  u,  m)  being  uttered  during  each  operation.  Certain 
medicinal  substances  supposed  to  have  a  purifying  efficacy 
were  also  given,  and  a  particular  regimen  prescribed  for 
the  remaining  period  of  gestation.  Musical  performances 
also  took  place  during  the  ceremony,  the  promotion  of  cheer- 
fulness in  the  mind  of  the  mother  being  thought  essential  to 
the  proper  development  of  the  unborn  child. 

This  rite  was  only  performed  at  a  woman's  first  pregnancy, 
and  though,  like  the  preceding,  it  purified  the  whole  person  of 
the  wife,  it  also  had  reference  to  the  well-being  of  the  unborn 
child.  The  idea  was  that  the  body  of  the  mother  should  be 
consecrated  and  protected  from  evil  influences  at  the  most 
critical  period  of  gestation,  the  proper  time  for  the  ceremony 
being  the  fourth  month,  though  it  might  be  deferred  until  the 
sixth  or  eighth. 

Immediately  after  the  birth  of  the  infant  and  before 
the  severing  of  the  umbilical  cord  the  father  performed  the 
next  Sanskara,  called  the  'Birth-ceremony'  (Jata-karman). 
Honey  and  clarified  butter  were  mixed  together  and  stirred— 
if  possible,  with  a  golden  rod  or  spoon— to  symbolize  good- 
fortune.  Then  a  small  portion  of  the  mixture  was  introduced 
into  the  mouth  of  the  new-born  infant  and  certain  texts  were 
repeated  (Rig-veda  II.  21.  6,  III.  36.  10,  Kaus.-Up.  II.  n). 
with  the  following  prayer :  '  O  long-lived  one,  mayst  thou  live 
a  hundred  years  in  this  world,  protected  by  the  gods!'     Both 


58    Name-giving.     Carrying  ont.     Food-giving. 


the  ears  of  the  infant  were  then  touched  with  the  golden  rod, 
and  another  prayer  repeated :  '  May  Savitri,  may  Sarasvatl, 
may  the  Asvins  grant  thee  wisdom.'  Lastly,  the  shoulders 
were  rubbed  and  these  words  uttered :  '  Become  firm  as 
a  rock,  sharp  as  an  axe,  pure  as  gold ;  thou  art  the  Veda 
called  a  son,  live  thou  a  hundred  years.  May  Indra  bestow 
on  thee  his  best  treasures.' 

The  next  Sanskara,  called  '  Name-giving '  (Nama-karana), 
took  place  on  the  tenth  day  after  the  birth  of  the  child. 

The  Hindus  regard  the  giving  of  a  name  as  a  solemn 
religious  act  fraught  with  important  consequences  in  its 
bearing  on  the  future  prospects  of  the  child.  The  sound  and 
meaning  of  the  name  must  be  auspicious.  Asvalayana  laid 
down  the  rule  that  a  boy's  name  should  either  consist  of  two 
or  of  four  syllables,  not  of  an  odd  number,  and  have  a  soft 
consonant  for  its  first  letter  and  a  semi-vowel  in  the  middle 
(for  example,  Bhadra,  Deva,  Bhava,  Naga-deva,  Bhadra-datta, 
Deva-datta,  Yajna-datta).  Lawgivers  prescribed  that  the  word 
Sarman,  '  prosperity,^  should  form  part  of  a  Brahman's  name ; 
Varman,  '  armour,'  of  a  Kshatriya's ;  Gupta,  '  protected,'  of 
a  Vaisya's ;  and  Dasa,  '  slave,'  of  a  Sudra's  (compare  Manu 
n.  32).  The  names  of  women  were  required  to  be  agreeable, 
soft,  clear,  captivating,  auspicious,  and  ending  in  long  vowels. 

The  next  ceremony,  called  '  Carrying  out '  (Nishkramana), 
was  of  less  importance.  In  the  fourth  month  after  birth  the 
child  was  carried  out  into  the  open  air  to  look  at  the  rising 
sun,  while  the  following  prayers  were  said  :  '  That  eye-like 
luminary,  the  cause  of  blessings  to  the  gods  (or  placed  in 
the  sky  by  the  gods),  rises  in  the  east ;  may  we  behold  it 
for  a  hundred  years.'  '  May  we  hear,  may  we  speak,  may  we 
be  free  from  poverty  for  a  hundred  years  and  more'  (Rig- 
veda  VII.  66.  16  ;  Vaj.-Samhita  XXXVI.  24). 

The  sixth  Sanskara,  called  'Food-giving'  (Anna-prasana), 
performed  in  the  sixth  month  after  birth,  was  of  more  im- 
portance.    The  child  was  carried  in  the  arms  of  its  father  and 


Tonsure  and  S/iai'i)ii^.  359 

placed  in  the  midst  of  a  party  of  friends,  includinjr  the  family- 
priest,  who  offered  prayers  for  its  welfare  and  presented  it 
with  gifts.  A  little  solid  food  (generally  rice)  was  then  for  the 
first  time  put  into  its  mouth,  and  various  qualities  were  sup- 
posed to  be  imparted,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  food  given, 
whether  rice,  butter,  honey,  milk,  or  the  flesh  of  partridges  or 
goats  (see  Asvalayana  Grihya-s.  I.  17).  At  the  same  time  a 
verse  from  the  White  Yajur-veda  (II.  83)  was  recited. 

After  this  sixth  ceremony  there  was  a  pause,  and  the  child 
was  allowed  to  develope  in  peace  for  two  or  three  years. 

The  next  important  Sanskaras  were  those  of  'Tonsure,' 
'  Shaving,'  and  'Cutting  off  the  hair'  (Caula,  Cuda-karma,  Ke- 
santa,  Kshaura).  These  were  kindred  operations,  and  may  be 
explained  together  ^.  When  performed  for  the  first  time  they 
were  held  to  have  a  purificatory  effect  on  the  whole  character. 
In  the  case  of  a  Brahman  the  ceremony  of  tonsure  was  per- 
formed in  the  third  year,  but  was  often  delayed,  and  sometimes 
did  not  take  place  till  the  seventh  or  eighth  year.  According 
to  Asvalayana  the  child  was  to  be  placed  on  the  lap  of  its 
mother  to  the  west  of  the  sacred  fire.  The  father  was  to 
take  up  his  station  to  the  south  of  the  mother,  holding  in  his 
hand  twenty-one  stalks  of  Kusa  grass.  He  was  to  sprinkle  the 
head  of  the  child  three  times  with  a  mixture  of  warm  water, 
butter  and  curds.  He  was  to  insert  three  stalks  of  Kusa 
grass  seven  times  into  the  child's  hair  on  the  right  side, 
saying  :  'O  divine  grass,  protect  him  !'  Then  he  was  to  cut  off 
a  portion  of  the  hair  and  give  it  to  the  mother,  with  recitation 
of  various  texts,  leaving  one  lock  [sikJid  or  ciida)  on  the  top  of 
the  head,  or  occasionally  three  or  five  locks,  according  to  the 
custom  of  the  family.     The  operation  of  shaving  was  some- 

'  Manu  makes  Kesanta, 'cutting  off  the  hair,' a  later  Sanskara  than 
(faula  or  Kshaura,  'shaving;'  see  note,  p.  353.  In  tlic  Roman  CathoHc 
Church  the  ceremony  of  tonsure  is  the  first  ceremony  for  devoting  a 
young  man  to  the  service  of  God.  In  England  this  is  done  by  cutting 
off  a  single  lock  ;  actual  shaving  is  dispensed  with. 


';6o  Ear-dorijKT.     Initiation 


<3 


times  regarded  as  a  different  ceremony  from  that  of  cutting. 
It  had  to  be  continued  after  the  age  of  puberty  at  regular 
intervals  throughout  life. 

Another  ceremony  followed,  called  Ear-boring  (Karna- 
vedha).  This  was  treated  by  some  as  a  distinct  religious  rite, 
and  had  to  take  place  after  tonsure  at  three  or  five  years  of 
age.  Paraskara  made  it  a  Sanskara,  but  not  so  Asvalayana 
or  Gobhila.  The  boy  was  fed  with  honey  or  something  sweet, 
and  made  to  sit  down  with  his  face  towards  the  east.  Then 
two  perforations  were  made  in  his  right  ear,  and  a  particular 
Mantra  from  the  last  hymn  of  the  Sama-veda  was  recited. 
Its  first  words  may  be  thus  translated  :  '  Let  us  hear  what  is 
good  with  the  ears,  let  us  see  what  is  good  with  the  eyes.' 
A  similar  operation  was  performed  on  the  left  ear,  except  that 
three  perforations  were  made  and  a  different  Mantra  from  the 
Rig-veda  (VI.  75. 3)  recited.  The  text  may  be  thus  translated : 
'  This  bowstring  drawn  tight  upon  the  bow  and  leading  to  suc- 
cess in  battle,  repeatedly  approaches  the  ear,  as  if  embracing 
its  friend,  and  wishing  to  say  something  agreeable,  just  as  a 
woman  makes  a  murmuring  sound  (in  her  husband^s  ear  ^).' 

The  next  Sanskara  was  that  of  'Initiation'  (Upanayana), 
which  in  the  case  of  high-caste  boys  took  place  at  eight  years 
of  age,  though  it  might  be  deferred  to  the  age  of  sixteen. 
This  and  marriage  were  perhaps  the  most  important  of  all 
the  Sanskaras.  The  nature  and  significance  of  initiation 
could  scarcely  be  inferred  from  its  name,  Upanayana,  which 
simply  means  '  leading  or  bringing  a  boy  to  his  Guru  or 
spiritual  preceptor.'  But  in  real  fact,  until  the  boy  was  so 
brought,  he  could  not  be  invested  with  the  sacred  thread,  and 
until  he  was  so  invested  he  could  not  be  reckoned  among  the 
'twice-born,'  and  until  he  was  spiritually  regenerated  by  the 
act  of  investiture  he  could  not  be  permitted  to  use  a  single 


'  The  only  apparent  reason  for  reciting  this  Mantra  at  the  Karna- 
vedha  Sanskara  is  that  the  word  Kama  occurs  in  it. 


The  Sacred  TJiread  or  Cod.  361 

prayer,  or  repeat  the  Veda,  or  engage  in  any  single  religious 
service  or  sacrificial  rite.  Nor  was  any  ceremonial  observance 
effectual  unless  the  thread  was  worn.  Indeed  even  in  the 
present  day  a  Brahman  before  initiation  has  no  right  to  any 
other  name  than  Vipra.  It  is  only  when  he  has  been  invested 
with  the  sacred  thread  that  he  has  a  right  to  the  title  Dvi-ja, 
'twice-born.'  Nor  ought  the  name  Brfdiman  to  be  applied  to 
him  until  the  assumption  of  the  thread  has  qualified  him  to 
learn  the  Veda  (Brahma)  by  heart. 

If  wc  inquire  a  little  closely  into  the  nature  of  the  sacred 
symbol  supposed  to  be  capable  of  effecting  so  vast  a  trans- 
formation in  a  human  being's  condition,  we  find  that  now,  as 
formerly,  it  consists  of  three  slender  cotton  threads — white  in 
colour  to  typify  purity,  and  tied  together  in  one  spot  by  a 
sacred  knot  of  peculiar  construction  (called  bralnna-graiithi), 
each  of  the  three  threads  also  consisting  of  three  finer  threads 
tightly  twisted  into  one.  The  construction  of  this  cord  is  no 
doubt  simple,  but  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  thread  when 
formed  is  of  no  use  unless  blessed  by  Brahmans  and  consecrated 
by  the  recitation  of  Vedic  texts.  The  texts  usually  repeated 
during  the  process  of  arranging  the  threads  are  the  Gayatrl 
and  certain  other  texts  from  the  Black  Yajur-veda.  At  the 
same  time  holy  water  is  repeatedly  sprinkled  on  the  cord 
by  means  of  Kusa  grass.  So  soon  as  the  Hindu  boy  had 
been  made  regenerate  by  the  solemn  putting  on  of  this  mystic 
symbol  his  religious  education  and  spiritual  life  really  began. 
And  now  for  the  first  time  he  was  taught  to  repeat  that 
remarkable  Vedic  prayer  for  illumination  called  Savitrl,  or 
Gayatrl  (from  Rig-veda  III.  62.  10),  thus  translatable  :  '  Let 
us  meditate  on  that  excellent  glory  of  the  divine  Vivifier,  may 
he  illumine  our  understandings,' — that  most  ancient  of  all 
Aryan  prayers,  which  was  first  uttered  more  than  three 
thousand  years  ago,  and  which  still  rises  day  by  day 
towards  heaven,  incessantly  ejaculated  by  millions  of  our 
Indian  fellow-subjects.     Then,  again,  every  initiated  boy  was 


362  Four  Stages  of  a  Drahmaiis  Life. 

admitted  to  the  privilege  of  reading  and  reciting  other  por- 
tions of  the  Veda.  He  was  taught  to  pronounce  the  sacred 
syllable  Oni,  the  names  of  the  seven  worlds  (Bhur,  Bhuvar, 
Svar,  etc.),  and  other  Vcdic  texts.  He  was  furthermore  re- 
quired to  learn  by  heart  certain  moral  precepts  taken  from 
Manu  or  other  Sanskrit  law-books,  enjoining  abstinence 
from  injury  to  others,  unselfishness,  the  practice  of  truth, 
honesty,  chastity,  and  self-control.  The  whole  process  .of 
teaching  him  these  various  formularies  was  by  some  re- 
garded as  a  separate  Sanskara  called  Vedarambha-sanskara, 
or  sometimes  Vaidika  upadesa  or  Gayatrl  upadesa.  When 
he  had  been  thus  initiated  he  was  for  the  first  time  permitted 
to  perform  other  religious  acts,  such  as  the  worship  of 
gods,  saints,  spirits  and  ancestors,  but  these,  as  we  shall  see, 
were  generally  deferred  until  as  a  married  man  he  had  a 
house  of  his  own  and  was  able  to  undertake  a  householder's 
duties. 

According  to  Manu  a  Brahman's  life  in  ancient  times  was 
to  be  divided  into  the  four  states  or  stages  (called  Asramas) 
of  religious  student  (brahma-carl),  householder  (grihastha), 
anchorite  (vanaprastha),  and  religious  mendicant  (bhikshu)  or 
abandoner  of  all  worldly  concerns  (sannyasi).  Hence  im- 
mediately after  his  initiation  and  investiture  with  the  sacred 
thread  he  had  to  leave  his  father's  house  and  reside  with  a 
religious  preceptor  for  several  years  as  an  unmarried  student, 
till  he  had  acquired  a  knowledge  of  the  Veda.  He  was  then 
to  perform  the  next  Sanskara  called  '  Return '  (Samavartana). 
This  was  formerly  a  solemn  religious  observance  in  which 
prayers  were  recited,  ablutions  performed,  and  gifts  given 
to  the  spiritual  teacher.  After  its  celebration  the  youthful 
Brahman  was  required  to  return  to  his  father's  house,  and  not 
till  then  was  he  supposed  to  take  a  wife  and  commence  life  as 
a  householder.  This  proves  that  early  marriages  were  not 
the  rule  in  ancient  times.  In  real  fact  the  next  Sanskara,  or 
Marriage  (Vivaha),  was  not  performed  till  a  man  and  woman 


Ancient  Form  of  JMarriagc  Ceremony.        363 

were  able  to  live  in  a  house  of  their  own.  The  whole  detail  of  the 
ancient  marriage  rite  is  given  in  the  domestic  rules  (Grihya- 
sutras)  of  Asvalayana,  Gobhila,  Paraskara,  and  others.  A  wife 
was  to  be  selected  after  proper  inquiry  as  to  family  and  con- 
dition. Before  the  marriage  ceremony  an  oblation  of  clarified 
butter  was  to  be  offered  in  fire,  with  repetition  of  a  Vedic  text 
(Rig-veda  V.  3.  2).  The  following  are  some  particulars  of  the 
wedding  ceremonial  taken  from  Asvalayana  (I.  7). 

West  of  the  sacred  fire  was  placed  a  stone  (for  grinding 
corn  and  condiments  such  as  is  used  by  women  in  all  house- 
holds), and  north-east  a  water-jar.  The  bridegroom  offered 
an  oblation,  standing  towards  the  west,  and  taking  hold  of 
the  bride's  hands,  while  she  sat  down  and  looked  towards  the 
east.  If  he  wished  only  for  sons  he  clasped  her  thumbs,  and 
if  for  daughters  the  fingers  alone.  Then,  whilst  he  led  her 
towards  the  right  three  times  round  the  fire  and  round  the 
water-jar,  he  said  in  a  low  tone,  '  I  am  male,  thou  art  female; 
come;  let  us  marry,  let  us  possess  oiTspring ;  united  in 
affection,  illustrious,  well-disposed  towards  each  other,  let  us 
live  for  a  hundred  years.'  Every  time  he  led  her  round  he 
made  her  ascend  the  mill-stone,  and  said,  '  Ascend  thou  this 
stone,  be  thou  firm  as  a  rock.'  Then  the  bride's  brother, 
after  spreading  melted  butter  on  the  joined  palms  of  her 
hands,  scattered  parched  grains  of  rice  on  them  twice.  Then, 
after  pouring  the  oblation  of  butter  on  the  fire,  Vedic  texts 
were  recited  (especially  from  Rig-veda  X.  85 ').  Then  the 
bridegroom  unloosed  the  two  braided  tresses  of  hair,  one  on 
each  side  of  the  top  of  the  bride's  head,  repeating  the  Vedic 


»  This  is  the  Surya-sukta,  or  well-known  Marriage-hymn  of  the  Rig- 
veda,  translated  by  Prof.  A.  Weber  in  Ind.  Stiidicn,  v.  177,  etc.,  and 
discussed  in  full  by  Dr.  Haas.  In  that  hymn  we  have  a  description 
of  the  marriage  of  Surya  daughter  of  the  Sun  to  Soma  (here  probably 
personified  as  the  Moon),  whereas  in  Rig-veda  IV.  43.  6  the  two  Asvms 
are  said  to  be  Surya's  husbands  (compare  p.  271).  The  Atharva-veda 
has  also  many  marriage-hymns  and  texts  (see  I.  14,  a"'^  many  in 
Book  XIV). 


364  Ancient  Fir c-ivor ship. 

text,  *  I  loose  thee  from  the  fetters  of  Varuna  with  which  the 
very  auspicious  Savitri  has  bound  thee '  (Rig-veda  X.  85.  24). 
Then  he  caused  her  to  step  seven  steps  towards  the  north- 
east quarter,  saying  to  her :  ^  Take  thou  one  step  for  the 
acquirement  of  force  ;  take  thou  two  steps  for  strength  ;  take 
thou  three  steps  for  the  increase  of  wealth ;  take  thou  four 
steps  for  well-being ;  take  thou  five  steps  for  offspring ;  take 
thou  six  steps  for  the  seasons ;  take  thou  seven  steps  as  a 
friend ;  be  faithfully  devoted  to  me ;  may  we  obtain  many 
sons  ;  may  they  attain  to  a  good  old  age,'  Then  bringing  both 
their  heads  into  close  juxtaposition,  some  one  sprinkled  them 
with  water  from  the  jar. 

The  fire  used  in  the  ceremonial  was  kindled  by  the  friction 
of  two  pieces  of  sacred  wood  called  Aran!  (Rig-veda  VII.  i.  i), 
and  this  same  fire  which  witnessed  the  union  of  the  young 
couple  was  brought  by  them  to  their  own  home.  There  a 
room  on  the  ground-floor  was  consecrated  as  a  sanctuary  for 
its  reception  and  perpetual  maintenance.  Great  reverence 
was  shown  to  the  fire  so  kindled.  It  was  never  blown  upon 
with  the  mouth.  Nothing  impure  was  ever  thrown  into  it, 
nor  was  it  ever  used  for  warming  the  feet  (Manu  IV.  ^'^. 

For  what  was  the  pious  Brahman's  idea  of  fire  ?  Two 
texts  of  the  Rig-veda  assert  that  the  Supreme  Being  deve- 
loped the  whole  order  of  existing  entities  [ritain-ca  satyam- 
to)  through  the  operation  of  heat.  Another  verse  of  the 
Rig-veda  says,  'All  gods  are  comprehended  in  fire'  (V.  3.  i); 
'  He  surrounds  them  all  as  the  circumference  of  a  wheel  does 
the  spokes'  (V.  13.  6).  In  fact,  fire  was  to  a  Hindu  a  visible 
embodiment  not  only  of  heat  but  of  all  the  other  forces  of 
nature.  It  had  three  forms,  as  fire  on  earth,  as  lightning — 
associated  with  rain  and  water — in  the  air,  as  the  sun  in  the 
heavens.  And  yet  these  three  forms  were  often  regarded 
as  comprehended  in  the  one  form  of  earthly  fire  (see  p.  16). 
Hence  fire  was  not  merely  a  symbol  of  the  Supreme  Being's 
presence  among  men.     It  was  an  emblem  of  His  creative, 


Ancient  Firc-wors/iip.  365 

fostering,  and  disintegrating  energies,  a  type  of  His    three 
eternal  attributes,  Life,  Light,  and  Joy. 

The  Sun,  too,  as  fire  in  the  Heaven,  had  a  triune  aspect. 
It  was  called  the  'three-stepped'  (tri-vikrama).  It  differed  in 
its  attributes  and  qualities  as  the  morning,  the  mid-day,  and 
the  evening  sun  (see  p.  342).  It  was  adored  every  day  in  the 
oft-repeated  Gayatri  prayer,  which  was  in  three  measures, 
though  all  three  measures  were  connected  in  sense.  And 
yet  there  were  not  three  Suns  worshipped,  but  only  three 
forms  of  one  Sun. 

The  Sun,  however,  was  inaccessible  and  not  always  visible. 
Fire  could  always  be  maintained,  or,  if  extinguished,  could  be 
rekindled  whenever  religious  rites  were  performed.  As  a 
general  rule  the  householder  was  contented  with  kindling  the 
sacred  fire  in  a  single  hearth  or  circular  clay  receptacle.  This 
was  called  the  Grihyagni,  '  household  fire,'  and  was  sufficient 
for  all  domestic  ceremonies  (smarta-karman).  Those  how- 
ever who  were  more  pious,  or  who  wished  to  engage  in  Vedic 
sacrificial  rites  (srauta-karman)  which  were  of  a  more  com- 
plicated character,  took  care  to  construct  a  more  elaborate 
Homa-sala,  or  room  for  fire-sacrifices,  on  the  ground-floor. 
In  that  sanctuary  fire  was  kindled  in  three  differently-shaped 
receptacles,  the  fire  in  each  having  a  different  name  {Aha- 
vanJya,  Gdrhapatya,  and  DaksJiitia).  W'hen  the  sacred  fire 
was  thus  lighted  it  was  regarded  as  a  symbol  of  God  present 
in  the  house, — as  the  '  brilliant  guest'  who  lived  in  the  midst 
of  the  family  (Rig-vcda  X.  91.  2),  the  divine  mediator  who 
bore  the  savour  of  daily  offerings  towards  heaven,  the  golden 
link  of  union  between  men  on  earth  and  the  celestial  denizens 
of  air  and  sky. 

Every  morning  and  evening  the  head  of  the  family,  with 
his  wife  and  children,  went  together  into  the  room  dedicated 
to  worship  \    There  they  seated  themselves  around  the  sacred 

^  In  Manu  IX.  96  we  read  that  religious  rites  are  ordained  in  the 
Veda  to  be  performed  by  the  husband  together  with  the  wife. 


<> 


66  Ancient  Fire-nwi'ship. 


hearth,  saying, '  We  approach  thcc,  O  fire,  daily  both  morning 

and    evening,   with    reverential    adoration    in    our   thoughts.' 

Then  they  fed  the  sacred   fire  ^  with  pieces  of  consecrated 

wood   (samidh),  generally  taken    from   the   Palasa  tree,   and 

with   offerings   of  rice   and    butter,    eating    portions   of  this 

offering  themselves.     The  oblation  thus  cast  into  the  flame 

was  supposed  to  ascend  to  the  Sun.     '  From  the  Sun,'  says 

Manu,  '  it  falls  again  in  rain,  from  rain  comes  food,  and  from 

food   animals   subsist'   (III.    76).     Then   while   they  fed   the 

fire  they  chanted    hymns  ;    they   sang   the   glories    of  their 

divine  guest,  calling  him  Father,  King,  Protector,  Illuminator 

of  truth.     They  spoke  of  his  subtle  essence,  of  his  universal 

presence  in  all  nature,  in  water,  in  plants,  in   the  bodies  of 

men  and  animals.     They  prayed  for  forgiveness,  saying : — 

Deliver,  mighty  lord,  thy  worshippers. 
Purge  us  from  taint  of  sin,  and  when  we  die, 
Deal  mercifully  with  us  on  the  pyre. 
Burning  our  bodies  with  their  load  of  guilt, 
But  bearing  our  eternal  part  on  high 
To  luminous  abodes  and  realms  of  bliss. 
For  ever  there  to  dwell  with  righteous  men. 

They  prayed  also  for  prosperity  in  their  worldly  affairs,  and, 
if  they  were  soldiers,  for  warlike  sons  and  success  in  battle, 
saying, '  Be  ever  present  with  us,  O  God  of  fire,  for  our  good  ^.' 

And  here  observe  that  as  every  religious  idea  was  exag- 
gerated by  Brahmanism,  so  it  was  not  enough  for  a  pious 
HindQ  to  be  born  twice  during  his  earthly  career.  Even 
when  regenerated  by  the  sacred  thread,  he  was  held  to  be 
again  regenerated  by  his  performance  of  the  Homa  or  daily 
sacrifice  to  fire.      Manu  says :    '  The  first  birth  is  from  the 


^  This  was  called  the  Homa  Sacrifice.  In  the  intervals  of  feeding 
the  flame  the  fire  was  allowed  to  smoulder. 

^  Mr.  M.  M.  Kunte  has  given  a  good  account  of  ancient  family  fire- 
worship  in  his  Shad-darsana-c'intanika,  and  many  of  my  statements  in 
this  chapter  are  based  on  his  authority.  For  the  Vedic  texts  used  in  the 
worship  of  Fire  and  here  paraphrased,  see  Muir's  Texts,  v.  197-220, 
303-305,  and  my  Indian  Wisdom,  p.  18. 


Ancioit  Sacrificial  Rites.  2)^'j 

natural  mother,  the  second  from  the  sacred  thread,  the  third 
from  due  performance  of  the  sacrifice'  (II.  169), 

Of  course,  it  was  most  important  to  keep  the  smouldering 
embers  of  the  sacred  element  perpetually  burning.  If  through 
any  accident  the  flame  was  extinguished  the  whole  household 
fell  into  confusion.  Everything  went  wrong  until  an  ex- 
piatory ceremony  (prayascitta) — sometimes  consisting  of  a 
solemn  fast  observed  by  both  husband  and  wife — had  been 
performed,  and  the  fire  was  rekindled. 

And  this  daily  service  was  not  all.     Every  fourteenth  day 
was  to  every  pious  and  orthodox   Hindu   a  high  and  holy 
day.      It   was   set    apart   for   special   religious    observances. 
Every   new  -  moon    day   (darsa)    and    every   full -moon   day 
(paurnamasa)   the   head   of  the   family — whatever  his    rank 
or  occupation — laid  them  both  aside.     Clad  in  humble  attire 
and  accompanied  by  his  wife,  he  went  into  the  woods.     There 
he  collected  fuel  (samidh)  and  sacred  sacrificial  grass,  placed 
them  on  his  head,  carried  them  home,  and  made  preparation 
for  the  solemn  fortnightly  ceremonial.     First  he  consecrated 
the  fuel,  constructed  seats  and  a  kind  of  broom  out  of  the 
grass,  spread  deer-skins,  and  arranged  the  sacrificial  instru- 
ments, made  of  a  particular  kind  of  wood  [khadira  or  sanii), 
on  the  domestic  altar.     Then,  with  the  assistance  of  his  wife, 
he  prepared  the  sacrificial  cake.     Having  consecrated  a  cer- 
tain quantity  of  rice — called  nirvdpa — and  pounded   it  in  a 
mortar  with  a  proper  pestle,  he  kneaded  the  flour  with  his 
own   hands  into  a   ball.     This  was  laid  on  eight  fragments 
of  brick  {kapdla\  taken  up  in  a  particular  order,  and  placed 
in  a  circle  on  the  fire.     The  ball  of  flour  was  then  shaped 
into  a  rounded  sacrificial   cake  [piiro-dasa)  resembling  the 
back   of  a   tortoise,   and,   when    baked,   taken   off  the   fire. 
Clarified  butter  was  next  poured  by  means  of  wooden  ladles 
five   times    into   the    fire — such    oblations   being   called    the 
panca-praydga — and  other  oblations  of  butter — called  Aj}-a — 
were  made  to  various  gods.     The  consecrated  cake  was  then 


o 


68  Ancient  Soma-sacrifices, 


cut  up,  and  the  pieces  {avaddnd)  were  sprinkled  with  butter 
and  thrown  into  the  flames  in  the  name  of  various  deities, 
including  the  god  of  fire  himself.  Other  portions  were  also 
reverently  eaten  by  the  assembled  family,  hymns  were 
chanted,  the  sins  of  the  past  fortnight  confessed,  repent- 
ance expressed,  and  forgiveness  asked.  The  whole  cere-, 
monial  was  not  always  performed  by  husband  and  wife  alone. 
If  they  were  rich  they  sent  for  regularly  ordained  priests — 
generally  four  in  number — who  kindled  fire  from  two  pieces 
of  sacred  wood  (arani)  by  friction,  and  carried  out  the  detail  of 
the  ritual  with  great  elaboration  and  with  all  the  sacrificial  im- 
plements — including  a  sacred  sword  for  keeping  off  demons — 
and,  of  course,  with  greater  merit  to  the  householder. 

Then  every  four  months  another  ceremony,  called  the  Ca- 
turmasya  sacrifice,  was  performed  at  the  beginning  of  the 
three  seasons.  Probably  this  was  solemnized,  like  a  harvest- 
thanksgiving,  in  gratitude  for  the  fruits  of  the  earth,  gathered 
in  at  the  end  of  the  three  seasons  of  summer,  autumn^  and 
winter.  It  was  conducted  with  as  much  solemnity  as  the 
fortnightly  rite,  and  in  much  the  same  manner.  Another 
special  sacrificial  ceremony  on  a  grander  scale,  with  the 
addition  of  animal  sacrifice  (Manu  IV.  26,  VI.  10),  was  usually 
performed  half-yearly  at  the  summer  and  winter  solstice 
{iittardyana,  daksJiindyana). 

Finally,  every  rich  householder  endeavoured  once  a  year 
to  institute  what  was  called  a  Soma-sacrifice.  This  was  a 
grand  public  ceremony  conducted  on  some  open  space  of 
ground,  and  requiring  the  presence  of  at  least  sixteen  dif- 
ferent priests,  who  were  well  paid  for  its  effective  celebration. 
The  simplest  annual  Soma-sacrifice,  called  Agnishtoma,  lasted 
for  five  days.  Others  were  protracted  for  weeks  and  months, 
and  there  were  even  sacrificial  sessions  [sattra)  which  lasted 
for  years.  And  in  these  public  rites — usually  called  Sraiita- 
karman^  to  distinguish  them  from  Sindrta-karman,  or  do- 
mestic  rites — two   entirely  new   elements  were   introduced  ; 


Soma-sacrijiccs.  369 

first  the  flesh  of  slaughtered  animals,  and  secondly  the  juice 
of  the  Soma  plant  {Asclcpias  Acida)  often  mentioned  before. 
At  one  time  all  kinds  of  animals  were  sacrificed,  as,  for  ex- 
ample, horses  (see  p.  329),  but  in  the  end  a  goat  was  usually- 
selected.  Parts  of  the  flesh  were  burned  in  the  fire  as 
offerings  to  the  gods,  and  parts  were  eaten  by  the  priests. 

But  the  great  central  act  of  the  whole  ceremony  was  the 
presentation  of  the  exhilarating  Soma-juice  to  the  gods,  some 
of  it  being  poured  out  for  the  deities  and  some  being  drunk 
by  the  performers  and  institutors  of  the  sacrifice.  This  was 
done  on  the  fifth  day  at  the  morning,  midday,  and  evening 
libations  {savana).  In  fact  the  animal  sacrifice,  though  it 
preceded  the  Soma-libation,  was  really  subordinate  to  it. 
The  idea  seems  to  have  been  that  the  sacrificer  killed  the 
animal  instead  of  sacrificing  himself;  and  as  the  body  of  the 
animal  when  sacrificed  in  the  fire  was  borne  upwards  to 
the  gods,  so  did  the  sacrificer — represented  by  the  animal — 
ascend  to  the  skies.  It  was  only  after  he  had  been  thus 
admitted  to  the  society  of  the  gods  in  heaven  that  he  be- 
came fit  to  quafl"  the  divine  beverage  and  to  become  one 
with  the  heavenly  king  Soma  himself. 

Indeed  this  purifying  and  invigorating  juice,  supposed 
to  confer  physical  strength  and  to  make  the  heart  of  men 
and  gods  glad,  came  to  be  regarded  as  the  water  of  life — 
the  nectar  which  purified  soul  and  body  and  conferred 
immortality.  It  was  then  itself  personified  and  deified.  The 
god  Soma  was  the  Bacchus  of  India,  and  the  fermented 
juice  of  the  Soma  plant  was  in  ancient  times  to  the  Indian 
community  very  much  what  the  juice  of  the  grape  was  to 
the  Greeks  and  Romans  (compare  p.  12).  Happily  for 
Indian  households,  the  drinking  of  stimulating  liciuor  has 
never  been  permitted  except  at  special  religious  ceremonials. 

So  much  for  the  religious  life  of  the  Brahman  householder 
in  ancient  times. 

Bb 


CHAPTER   XIV. 

The  Hindu  Religion  itt  Modern  Family-life. 

Turn  we  now  to  the  daily  life  of  the  modern  householder. 
And  here  I  must  make  it  clear  that  what  I  shall  have  to  say- 
will  have  reference  only  to  those  persons  of  the  higher  castes 
who  have  the  right  to  the  title  '  twice-born,'  and  have  gone 
through  the  chief  Sanskaras  or  ceremonies  supposed  to  purify 
the  child  from  the  taint  contracted  in  the  womb  of  an  earthly 
parent. 

Of  the  twelve  Sanskaras  described  in  the  last  chapter  only 
a  few  remain  still  in  force.  Passing  over  the  first  four,  which 
are  rarely  if  ever  performed  in  the  present  day,  we  come  to 
the  fifth,  or  Name-giving  ceremony  (Nama-karana),  which 
takes  place  about  the  tenth  or  twelfth  day  after  birth. 

It  is  worth  while  to  take  note  here  of  a  superstitious  idea 
which  prevails  very  generally  throughout  India,  that  on  the 
sixth  day  after  birth  the  Creator  writes  the  child's  future 
destiny  on  its  forehead.  Yet  I  know  of  no  special  ceremony 
instituted  to  mark  this  particular  day,  or  to  propitiate  the 
deity  on  so  momentous  an  occasion. 

With  regard  to  the  present  custom  of  Name-giving,  the 
ceremony  is  performed  in  some  parts  of  India  on  the  day 
when  the  child  is  first  fed  with  a  little  riceK  Then  it  is 
thought  essential  to  secure  good  fortune  that  a  boy  should 
be   called    after   some   god  ^  for   example   Krishna,   Gopala 


^  This  appears  to  be  the  custom  in  Bengal. 

^  In  former  days  people  were  notso  superstitious.     Witness  such 
names  as  Panini,  Patanjali,  Saunaka,  Asvalayana,  etc. 


Moderji  Navic-ghing.  371 

(Gopal),  Rama,  Rama-candra,  Narayana,  Siva,  Sarikara  \  Ga- 
nesa ;  or  the  name  may  indicate  that  he  is  to  be  the  god"s 
servant,  as,  for  instance,  Rama-dasa  (Ram-das),  Krishna-dasa, 
Narayana-dasa  (Narayan-das),  Lakshml-dasa.  Often  the  ho- 
norific affix  JT  (probably  thought  to  be  auspicious  as  derived 
from  either  the  root  jiv,  'to  Hve/  or  ji,  *to  conquer')  is  added 
to  the  name,  as  in  Rama-jl  (Ram-jl),  Siva-jT,  Deva-jl.  (fandra, 
the  moon — corrupted  into  (Jandar  and  Cand — is  beheved  to 
bring  good  luck  when  forming  part  of  an  appellation,  as  in 
Motl-c'and,  etc. 

Again,  in  the  present  day  as  in  ancient  times,  the  names  of 
girls,  like  those  of  boys,  are  often  taken  from  those  of  god- 
desses, such  as  Lakshmi,  Durga,  Sita,  Radha ;  or  from  cele- 
brated women,  such  as  Savitrl,  Yasoda,  Subhadra,  Sumarigala  ; 
or  from  rivers,  such  as  Gahga,  Yamuna,  Bhaglrathi,  GodavarT, 
Narmada,  Krishna;  or  from  jewels,  such  as  Manak  (for  San- 
skrit Manikya),  a  ruby;  Mot!  (Sanskrit  Mukta),  a  pearl; 
Rattan  (Sanskrit  ratna),  a  precious  stone  ;  Mani,  a  gem ;  or 
from  flowers,  such  as  Padma,  a  lily;  PhulH,  a  blossom;  or 
from  words  like  Sundarl,  beautiful ;  Prema,  love,  etc. 

It  is  often  considered  unlucky,  and  not  unlikely  to  bring 
down  a  judgment  on  a  child,  if  the  name  it  receives  is  in- 
dicative of  any  good  quality  it  may  happen  to  possess  at 
birth.  Therefore  it  is  not  uncommon  for  a  fair  child  to  be 
called  '  Black  '  (Krishna).  Moreover,  a  parent  will  sometimes 
give  an  infant  an  ugly  or  inauspicious  name  from  a  super- 
stitious fear  that  the  child's  beauty  may  excite  the  envious 
glances  or  '  evil  eye'  of  malicious  persons  ;  for  it  is  remarkable 
that  when  a  family  has  suffered  early  bereavements  by  death 
these  are  attributed  to  evil  influences  exerted  through  the  in- 
strumentality of  the  human  eye  (see  p.  253). 

As  a  general  rule,  the  name  given  on  the  tenth  day  is  only 
that  by  which  the  child  is  commonly  known  and  addressed  in 

'  Narmada-sankar  is  the  name  of  a  celebrated  living  GujaratI  poet. 

B  b  2 


Z12  Birth-record  and  Horoscope. 

conversation.  But  the  infant  often  receives  a  second  or  pri- 
vate name,  which  is  considered  to  be  its  real  name,  and  is 
whispered  inaudibly  by  its  parent  or  the  family  preceptor 
(guru),  and  not  revealed  to  others.  The  idea  is  that  a  man's 
name  is  in  some  mysterious  manner  connected  with  his  per- 
sonality, and  the  object  of  concealing  it  is  to  protect  him  from 
the  power  of  sorcerers,  who  are  unable  to  injure  him  by  their 
enchantments  unless  they  know  and  can  pronounce  his  real 
name^. 

I  ought  to  mention,  too,  that  besides  the  common  name 
and  the  secret  name,  another  is  generally  added  which  may 
be  called  the  astrological  name,  because  it  contains  a  letter 
from  the  name  of  the  constellation  (nakshatra)  under  which 
the  child  was  born.  It  is  well  known  that  nothing  of  im- 
portance is  ever  done  by  a  Hindu  without  consulting  the 
stars.  Therefore  soon  after  the  Name-giving  ceremony  has 
been  performed  the  family  Astrologer  (Jyotisha,  corrupted 
into  Jyoshi  or  Joshi)  is  sent  for  and  commissioned  to  draw 
up  a  horoscope  of  the  exact  time  of  the  child's  nativity,  the 
constellation  under  which  it  was  born,  with  a  prophecy  of 
the  duration  of  its  life,  and  the  circumstances,  good  or  evil, 
of  its  probable  career.  This  is  called  the  birth-record  (Janma- 
patra).  It  is  always  written  in  Sanskrit,  and,  if  the  parents 
are  rich,  sometimes  on  a  roll  sixty  yards  long,  takes  three  or 
four  months  to  prepare,  and  costs  a  large  sum  of  money. 
The  name  given  in  the  horoscope  is  the  Nakshatra  name,  and 
not  the  one  given  at  the  Name-giving  ceremony.  For  ex- 
ample,  if  the  child's  common  name  is  Yadava  Candra 
Ghosh,  this  name  is  not  mentioned  in  the  horoscope,  but  a 
different  name  is  given,  such,  for  example,  as  Raghu-natha, 


^  It  is  well  known  that  no  wife  in  India  likes  to  utter  her  husband's 
name.  According  to  Sir  J.  Lubbock  a  Sumatran  scrupulously  abstains 
from  pronouncing  his  own  name,  and  a  similar  superstition  prevails 
among  the  Negroes,  Abyssinians,  and  Australians. 


Translation  of  Horoscope.  2>7 


or  Hari-hara  ^     I  subjoin  a  translation  of  part  of  a  genuine 
horoscope  - : — 

Adoration  to  the  Sun.  May  the  Sun  and  all  other  planets  and  stars 
and  constellations  prolong  the  life  of  him  for  whom  this  horoscope  is 
prepared.  Let  that  series  of  characters  which  is  written  by  the  Dis- 
poser of  all  things  on  the  forehead  of  the  child,  and  which  is  another 
name  for  Astrology,  be  seen  clearly  by  eyes  purified  by  the  same  science. 
May  good  fortune  smile  on  the  instant  which  came  to  pass  after  1784 
years,  7  months,  26  days,  22  dandas,  and  27  palas  of  the  era  styled 
the  Sakabda  had  passed  away,  or  after  1269  years,  7  months,  26  days, 
22  dandas,  and  27  palas  of  the  era  styled  the  Sana  had  passed  away. 

First,  the  measure  of  the  day  of  birth  is  26  dandas,  35  palas,  o  vipala, 
and  of  the  night  is  33  dandas,  25  palas,  o  vipala;  of  half  the  day,  13 
dandas,  17  palas,  30  vipalas,  and  of  half  the  night  16  dandas,  42  palas, 
30  vipalas  ;  of  a  fourth  part  of  the  day,  6  dandas,  38  palas,  45  vipalas  ; 
and  of  a  fourth  part  of  the  night  8  dandas,  12  palas,  15  vipalas  ;  of  an 
eighth  part  of  the  day,  3  dandas,  19  palas,  22  vipalas  ;  and  of  an  eighth 
part  of  the  night  4  dandas,  10  palas,  ^i^  vipalas. 

The  moment  of  his  birth  being  next  after  the  27th  pala,  after  the 
22nd  danda  of  the  day,  the  child  was  born  in  that  eighth  part  of  the 
day  which  was  presided  over  by  the  planet  Sukra  (Venus),  and  in  that 
danda  of  the  day  which  was  presided  over  by  Rahu,  and  consequently 
the  aspect  of  Rahu  was  then  not  such  that  it  could  have  had  its  position 
in  the  same  degree  with  the  constellation  of  the  child's  birth  or  with  any 
of  the  co-ordinate  constellations  (compare  p.  345). 

At  the  instant  following  the  27lh  pala,  after  22  dandas  of  the  27th  day 
of  the  solar  month  of  Agrahayana,  being  a  Thursday  and  the  5th  day 
of  the  fortnight  succeeding  the  full  moon,  in  that  lagna  or  period  during 
which  the  constellation  Aries  was  visible  in  the  sky,  and  which  was  ruled 
over  by  Mars,  in  that  half  of  the  lagna  which  was  guarded  by  the  Moon, 
and  in  that  3rd  part  of  the  lagna  which  was  governed  by  Jupiter,  &c., 
the  second  son  of  *  *  *  *  *  was  born  under  the  star  Aslesha,  and  when 
the  moon  had  revolved  to  the  constellation  Cancer. 

The  child,  who  will  live  a  long  life  and  be  capable  of  attaining  to 
great  prosperity,  belongs  to  the  Devari-gana  or  demon  class,  and  to 
the  Vipra-varna  or  Brahman  caste,  and  his  astrological  name  is  Hari- 
hara  Devasarma.     To  him  doth  this  horoscope  of  happy  results  belong. 

As  the  deity  presiding  over  his  birth-lagna  is  propitious,  the  child  will 

'  The  Rev.  Nehemiah  Goreh  (a  converted  Brahman)  told  me  that 
each  Nakshatra  or  constellation  has  four  divisions,  and  that  he  was 
born  under  the  third,  in  which  the  letter  r  occurs.  Hence  his  Nakshatra 
name  was  Raghu-natha.  It  might  just  as  well  have  been  Rfima  or  any 
name  in  which  the  letter  R  occurs. 

•^  The  late  Mr.  Woodrow,  Inspector  of  Schools,  is  my  authority  here. 


374  Modern  Shaving. 

turn  out  to  be  a  person  of  a  good  disposition  and  a  favourite  of  fortune, 
he  shall  beget  many  sons,  and  have  ample  dwelling-places,  enjoy  plea- 
sures, and  possess  gems  of  various  descriptions. 

Now  are  to  be  described  the  planetary  periods  according  to  the  birth- 
star  of  the  child.  He  was  born  under  the  star  of  Aslesha,  and  hence 
2  years  4  months  and  18  days  of  the  lunar  period  were  passed,  and 
I  year  4  months  and  12  days  of  the  same  remained,  at  the  date  of 
the  child's  birth.  The  result  of  this  shall  be  the  gain  of  clothes  by 
the  boy.  The  age  of  the  boy  will  be  i  year  4  months  12  days  at  the 
expiration  of  the  period  of  the  Moon  ;  9  years  4  months  12  days  at 
the  expiration  of  the  period  of  Mars,  which  is  8  years  ;  26  years  4  months 
12  days  at  the  expiration  of  the  period  of  Mercury,  which  is  17  years  ; 
36  years  4  months  12  days  at  the  expiration  of  the  period  of  Saturn, 
which  is  10  years  ;  55  years  4  months  12  days  at  the  expiration  of 
the  period  of  Jupiter,  which  is  19  years  ;  67  years  4  months  12  days  at 
the  expiration  of  the  period  of  the  Earth's  shadow,  which  is  12  years; 
88  years  4  months  12  days  at  the  expiration  of  the  period  of  Venus, 
which  is  21  years. 

With  regard  to  the  right  of  tonsure  or  shaving  described  at 
P-  359>  it  is  to  be  observed  that  in  modern  times  rich  people 
are  shaved  every  day,  ordinary  people  once  a  week,  poor  people 
once  a  fortnight.  No  one,  as  a  general  rule,  shaves  himself, 
or  even  cuts  his  own  nails.  Both  these  necessary  acts  are 
performed  by  a  caste  of  barbers  (napita),  and  ought  not  to  be 
carried  on  in  a  room,  for  the  simple  reason  that  fragments 
of  hair  and  nail-parings  are  supposed  to  cause  pollution. 
The  operation  is  usually  conducted  under  a  shed  or  tree,  or 
in  an  open  verandah  or  street.  Numbers  of  barbers  may  be 
seen  plying  their  occupation  every  morning  outside  the  houses 
of  a  native  town. 

In  former  days,  as  we  have  seen,  a  Brahman  had  to  part 
with  all  his  hair  except  a  tuft  at  the  top  (sikha)  of  his  head, 
this  top-knot  and  the  sacred  thread  being  the  two  chief 
badges  of  Brahmanhood.  Only  when  he  became  a  SannyasI 
(see  p.  362)  was  he  allowed  to  dispense  with  these  two  badges. 

In  the  present  day  few  persons,  except  Brahmans  of  the 
strictest  orthodoxy,  allow  themselves  to  be  reduced  to  a 
single  lock  on  the  top  of  their  heads ;  but  every  respectable 
Hindu  who  has  reached  puberty  gets  rid  of  the  hair  on  his 


Modern  Tonsure. 


375 


facc^  (except  his  mustaches),  unless  he  is  an  ascetic''^,  or  has 
taken  some  other  religious  vow,  or  belongs  to  the  very  lowest 
castes.  It  should  also  be  noted  that  special  religious  shavings 
are  performed  at  sacred  places  of  pilgrimage  on  the  banks  of 
rivers,  and  arc  held  to  be  very  efficacious  in  purifying  soul 
and  body  from  pollution.  Persons  who  have  committed  great 
crimes  or  are  troubled  by  uneasy  consciences,  travel  hun- 
dreds of  miles  to  Prayaga  (Allahabad),  Mathura  (Muttra),  or 
other  holy  places  for  the  sole  purpose  of  submitting  them- 
selves to  the  tonsorial  skill  of  the  professional  barbers  who 
frequent  such  localities.  There  they  may  be  released  from 
every  sin  by  first  being  relieved  of  every  hair  and  then  plung- 
ing into  the  sacred  stream.  Forthwith  they  emerge  new  crea- 
tures, with  all  the  accumulated  guilt  of  a  long  life  effaced. 

Women,  on  the  other  hand,  are  most  careful  to  preserve 
their  hair  intact.  They  pride  themselves  on  its  length  and 
weight.  For  a  woman  to  have  to  part  with  her  hair  is  one 
of  the  greatest  of  degradations,  and  the  most  terrible  of  all 
trials.  It  is  the  mark  of  widowhood.  Yet  in  some  sacred 
places,  especially  at  the  confluence  of  rivers,  the  cutting  off 
and  offering  of  a  few  locks  of  hair  (Venl-danam)  by  a  vir- 
tuous wife  is  considered  a  highly  meritorious  act. 

A  Brahman  gentleman  of  high  rank  in  India  once  described 
to  me  how  he  had  taken  his  wife  for  the  performance  of  this 
ceremonial  to  Prayaga,  which,  as  the  point  of  meeting  of  the 
Ganges  and  Jumna,  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  holiest  places  of 
pilgrimage  in  India.  She  was  escorted  to  the  banks  of  the 
river  by  a  troop  of  priests — there  called  Prayagwal — carrying 
cocoa-nuts,  areca-nuts,  flowers,  kurikuma,  etc.  At  the  conflu- 
ence she  was  made  to  sit  down  and  offer  worship  (puja)  to  the 

^  This,  in  most  parts  of  India,  is  one  point  of  distinction  between 
Hindus  and  Muhammadans,  whose  former  hatred  of  each  other  made 
them  adopt  opposite  practices  out  of  mere  antagonism. 

'^  Some  SannyasTs  allow  all  their  hair  to  grow,  some  shave  it  all  off, 
including  the  Sikha.    These  latter  are  the  most  orthodox. 


376  Teeth-cleaning.     Ear-boi'ing. 

Ganges.  Then  one  of  the  priests  recited  certain  texts  and 
prayers  from  the  Veda,  and  holding  a  pair  of  golden  scissors 
in  his  hand  cut  off  about  two  inches  of  her  long  hair.  The 
locks  thus  severed  were  deposited  as  a  precious  offering  in 
a  costly  metal  vessel,  but  not  without  the  addition  of  five 
rupees  to  make  the  gift  more  acceptable.  Then  the  husband, 
in  ratification  of  the  ceremony,  poured  water  into  the  hand 
of  the  priest,  who  thereupon  took  the  money  for  himself  and 
cast  the  locks  of  hair  into  the  river.  The  shorn  woman  re- 
garded this  presentation  of  her  precious  locks  to  the  river- 
goddess  as  a  great  privilege,  for  it  can  only  be  performed  by 
a  devoted  wife  who  is  living  virtuously  with  her  husband,  and 
only  in  his  presence. 

I  may  observe  here  that  if  a  really  orthodox  Hindu  woman 
ever  loses  her  hair  or  becomes  partially  bald  from  sickness 
or  any  other  cause  she  never  resorts  to  the  artifice  of  using 
false  hair.  She  would  consider  herself  eternally  defiled  and 
condemned  to  prolonged  suffering  in  a  future  state  of  existence 
by  such  an  act. 

It  may  be  mentioned  in  connection  with  the.  religious  duty 
of  shaving  that  daily  teeth-cleaning  is  also  regarded  as  a  re- 
ligious act  partaking  of  the  nature  of  a  ceremonial  observance. 
It  is  performed,  like  shaving,  in  the  open  air.  Any  one  who 
passes  through  a  native  village  in  the  early  morning  may  see 
a  large  proportion  of  its  population  engaged  in  the  serious 
duty  of  cleansing  their  teeth.  The  instrument  used  is  a  twig 
or  small  stick.  After  its  application  to  the  teeth  the  twig 
serves  the  purpose  of  cleaning  the  tongue — another  important 
duty.  It  is  never  used  a  second  time,  but  always  thrown 
away.  No  words  can  express  the  abhorrence  with  which  a 
strict  Hindu  regards  the  European  practice  of  using  a  tooth- 
brush a  second  time.  Saliva  is  of  all  things  the  most  utterly 
polluting. 

Ear-boring  is  also  a  religious  ceremony.  Girls  have  their 
ears  bored  about  the  same  age  as  boys  (see  p.  360),  but  often 


Betrothal.     Initiation.  377 

have  three  perforations  made  in  each  ear,  besides  one  in  the 
left  nostril.  Nose-rings  are  universal  among  women  in  all 
parts  of  India.  Even  boys  in  some  places  have  one  nostril 
bored,  but  this  is  an  exceptional  circumstance. 

The  ceremony  of  betrothal  (vag-dana)  generally  succeeds 
tonsure  and  ear-boring,  but  is  not  reckoned  among  the 
Sanskaras.  In  India  a  parent's  first  thought  for  its  child 
is  not  for  its  health — not  for  its  wealth — not  for  its  physical, 
moral  or  mental  well-being — but  for  its  betrothal  and  mar- 
riage. To  look  out  for  a  child's  future  wife,  to  lay  by  money 
for  the  cost  of  the  nuptial  festivities,  to  fee  and  conciliate  the 
priests  who  promote  the  match — these  are  far  more  important 
duties  than  to  make  arrangements  for  a  boy's  proper  educa- 
tion. When  a  boy  attains  the  age  of  five  his  father  deputes  a 
professional  match-maker  (Ghataka)  to  negotiate  a  promise  of 
marriage  with  the  daughter  of  a  man  of  at  least  equal  caste. 
It  must  be  admitted  that  caste-equality  in  India  is  regarded 
as  a  more  important  requisite  than  riches.  Money  is  quite  a 
secondary  consideration.  Nor  is  character  so  important.  In 
some  parts  of  Northern  India  the  match- maker  for  some 
castes  is  the  family  barber ;  but  for  the  higher  castes  he  is 
more  generally  a  Brahman,  who  goes  about  from  one  house 
to  another  till  he  discovers  a  baby-girl  of  suitable  rank. 
Forthwith  he  reports  to  one  of  the  parents  that  the  young 
lady  has  all  her  members  complete — the  full  number  of  eyes, 
teeth,  fingers  and  toes — and  to  the  other  that  the  young 
gentleman  is  equally  perfect  in  every  particular.  Next,  he 
brings  the  two  parents  together.  Genealogies  are  investi- 
gated, and  pedigrees  certified.  Then  the  boy  and  girl  are 
solemnly  betrothed.  This  is  called  in  Sanskrit  vdg-ddna, 
and  in  Hindustani  nisbat. 

The  important  Sanskara  ceremony  of  initiation  (upana- 
yana)  into  the  Brahmanical  religion  by  investiture  with  the 
sacred  thread  (yajuopavTta)  has  been  described  at  p.  360, 
Once  invested  with  the  mystical  cord — the  hallowed  symbol 


378  Initiation. 

of  second  birth — the  twice-born  man  never  parts  with  it.  In 
this  respect  he  has  an  advantage  over  his  Christian  brother. 
For  the  latter  is  admitted  into  the  Church  by  a  single  sacred 
ceremony  performed  in  his  infancy,  and  brought  to  his  recol- 
lection by  one  other  ceremony  only;  whereas  the  Indian 
twice-born  man  has  a  sacred  symbol  always  in  contact  with 
his  person,  which  must  always  be  worn  and  its  position 
changed  during  the  performance  of  his  daily  religious  services, 
constantly  reminding  him  of  his  regenerate  condition,  ■  and 
with  its  three  white  threads,  united  by  a  sacred  knot,  per- 
petually setting  before  him  a  typical  representation  of  what 
may  be  called  the  triads  of  the  Hindu  religion.  For  ex- 
ample, it  is  probable  that  the  triple  form  of  the  sacred  thread 
symbolizes  that  the  Supreme  Being  is  Existence,  Wisdom, 
and  Joy;  that  He  has  been  manifested  in  three  forms  as 
Creator,  Preserver,  and  Disintegrator  of  all  material  things ; 
that  He  pervades  the  three  worlds,  Earth,  Air,  and  Heaven ; 
that  He  has  revealed  His  will  in  three  principal  books  called 
the  Rig,  Yajur,  and  Sama  Vedas,  with  other  similar  dogmas  of 
the  Hindu  system  in  which  the  sacred  number  three  con- 
stantly recurs.  I  have  heard  a  Brahman  described  as  the 
greatest  of  all  ritualists.  This  is  true  in  regard  to  the  multi- 
plicity of  rites  he  is  called  upon  to  perform.  But  his  ritualism 
in  the  present  day  is  confined  to  private  worship  and  domestic 
ceremonies,  and  his  ritualistic  vestments  are  restricted  to  this 
coil  of  cotton  thread,  the  name  of  which  (yajuopavita)  denotes 
that  it  is  put  on  (upavlta)  during  the  performance  of  de- 
votional rites  (yajna).  And  just  as  a  Roman  Catholic  priest 
changes  his  ecclesiastical  vestments  according  to  variations  in 
his  own  ceremonial,  so  the  Brahman  alters  the  position  of  his 
thread.  For  example,  when  he  worships  the  gods  he  puts  it 
over  his  left  shoulder  and  under  his  right,  being  then  called 
Upavltl ;  when  he  worships  his  departed  ancestors  he  sus- 
pends it  over  his  right  shoulder  and  under  his  left,  being  then 
called  pracinavitl ;  and  when  he  worships  the  saints  he  hangs 


Marriage  Ceremonies,  379 

it  round  his  neck  like  a  long  necklace,  being  then  called 
NivTtl.  It  would  be  premature  to  pursue  the  subject  of 
domestic  worship  further  until  we  have  given  some  account 
of  the  marriage  ceremony. 


Marriaf^e  Ceremonies. 

We  have  seen  (p.  362)  that  in  ancient  times  the  young 
Brahman  after  his  initiation  left  his  father's  house  and  resided 
for  several  years  as  an  unmarried  student  with  a  religious 
preceptor.  In  the  present  day  a  boy's  initiation  is  followed 
immediately  afterwards  by  a  mere  formal  performance  of  the 
rite  called  '  Return  '  (Samavartana),  and  generally  after  a  day 
or  two's  interval  by  the  ceremony  of  marriage.  That  is,  he 
is  made,  while  still  a  boy  at  the  age  of  about  nine  or  ten  and 
before  he  is  really  marriageable,  to  go  through  the  second 
matriinonial  act,  his  previous  betrothal  having  constituted  the 
first,  and  cohabitation  at  the  age  of  fifteen  or  sixteen  consti- 
tuting the  third.  In  fact,  a  Hindu  marriage  is  a  kind  of  drama 
in  three  acts.  But  the  second  is  the  religious  and  legal  cere- 
mony, and  is  a  most  tedious  process,  involving  considerable  fees 
to  the  priests  and  expensive  festivities  prolonged  for  many  days, 
at  a  cost,  in  the  case  of  rich  people,  of  perhaps  100,000  rupees. 
Often  the  savings  of  a  whole  lifetime  are  so  spent.  This  is 
one  of  the  greatest  evils  of  Indian  society.  Every  well-to-do 
parent  is  compelled  to  squander  large  sums  on  mere  idlers 
and  pleasure-seekers,  instead  of  giving  the  money  as  a  grant 
in  aid  to  the  newly-married  pair  on  first  starting  in  life.  He 
knows,  in  fact,  that  if  he  were  to  allow  the  wedding  to  be 
conducted  with  an  eye  to  economy  he  would  sink  irretrievably 
in  the  estimation  of  his  friends  and  caste-fellows.  He  would 
never  be  able  to  hold  up  his  head  again  in  his  own  social 
circle.  Nor  must  it  be  supposed  that  he  spends  his  money 
unwillingly.  On  the  contrary,  the  more  lavishly  he  spends 
the  more  pride  and  satisfaction  he  afterwards  feels  in  looking 


380  Marriage  Ceremonies. 

back  on  what  he  regards  as  the  most  meritorious  act  of  his 
life^ 

As  to  the  two  persons  chiefly  concerned  in  a  wedding  their 
wishes  are  never  consulted  about  any  of  the  arrangements. 
Yet  it  is  thought  highly  important  to  consult  the  stars.  A 
wedding  ought  never  to  take  place  except  in  a  fortunate 
month  and  during  fortunate  days.  The  most  favourable  time 
is  believed  to  be  in  spring — that  is  in  the  three  or  four  months 
from  February  to  April  and  May.  The  months  generally  chosen 
are  Magha,  Phalguna,  and  Vaisakha  ^.  It  is  out  of  the  power 
of  any  European,  to  whom  the  inner  apartments  of  Indian 
households  are  forbidden  ground,  to  give  a  complete  descrip- 
tion of  the  entire  marriage  ceremonial.  The  more  ancient 
form  has  already  been  described  at  p.  o^d'i^.  The  modern 
ceremonies — which  last  for  many  days — are  marked  by  many 
similar  acts,  and  especially  by  the  following  essential  features  : 
the  night  procession  of  the  bridegroom  to  the  house  of  the 
bride,  tying  the  vestments  of  bride  and  bridegroom  together 
with  a  piece  of  consecrated  cloth  under  which  their  hands  are 
joined,  winding  a  cord  round  their  necks,  marking  their  faces 
with  paint,  making  them  walk  three  times  round  the  sacred  fire, 
each  time  in  seven  steps  ^,  with  repetition  of  prayers  and  texts. 
Noisy  music  during  some  part  of  the  ceremony  is  held  to  be 
essential.  In  fact  no  one  in  India  would  believe  in  the  validity 
of  a  marriage  ceremony  conducted  without  loud  and  often  up- 
roarious festivities.  For  it  is  a  common  idea,  which  no  contact 
with  European  habits  of  thought  has  yet  eradicated,  that  the 
efficacy  of  religious  services  is  greatly  enhanced  by  noise. 

Every  sort  of  deafening  musical  instrument  is  brought  into 


*  In  one  way  the  expense  of  marriages  acts  beneficially  ;  for  although 
it  is  lawful  for  a  Hindu  to  have  more  than  one  wife,  scarcely  any  one 
can  afford  to  do  so. 

^  In  some  parts  of  India  Caitra  is  avoided. 

'  This  part  of  the  ceremony  is  called  the  Sapta-padl,  and  generally 
comes  last. 


JMarriagc  Ccrcfuonics.  381 

requisition.  Players  on  trumpets,  horns,  pipes,  and  drums 
are  eagerly  sought  for,  and  every  performer  seems  intent  on 
overpowering  the  sounds  produced  by  his  fellow-performers, 
as  if  his  musical  reputation  depended  on  his  being  heard 
above  the  general  din. 

In  the  higher  circles  of  Indian  society  the  wedding  enter- 
tainments, often  repeated  for  several  days,  are  on  a  magnificent 
scale,  and  when  Europeans  are  invited  every  kind  of  expensive 
luxury  is  provided  for  them. 

Soon  after  my  arrival  at  Bombay  in  1875  I  was  invited  to 
be  present  at  the  wedding  of  Sir  Mahgaldas  Nathoobhal's 
two  sons.  The  festivities  and  religious  ceremonies  lasted  for 
eight  days,  and  were  on  a  scale  of  unusual  magnificence. 
Such  a  wedding  is  rarely  witnessed  even  in  India.  The 
residence  of  Sir  Mahgaldas — called  Girgaum  House — is  a 
magnificent  mansion  in  the  middle  of  a  large  garden.  When 
we  arrived  at  eight  o'clock  in  the  evening  of  the  first  day  of 
the  ceremonies,  both  house  and  garden  were  brilliantly  illu- 
minated— all  the  trees  festooned  with  Chinese  lanterns,  all 
the  lines  of  the  architecture  sparkling  with  light,  and  every 
bed  and  fountain  in  the  garden  encircled  with  thousands  of 
coloured  lamps.  A  splendid  drawing-room  blazing  with  light 
was  thronged  with  native  gentlemen  and  Rajas,  most  of  whom 
sat  round  in  a  double  row,  intently  gazing  at  the  movements 
and  listening  to  the  songs  of  two  jewel -bedecked  Nach 
girls.  These  girls  wore  bright-coloured  silk  trousers  and 
were  decorously  enveloped  in  voluminous  folds  of  drapery. 
They  did  not  really  dance,  but  merely  sang  in  a  mono- 
tonous minor  key  with  continuous  trills  and  turns  of  the 
voice,  while  they  waved  their  arms  gracefully  to  and  fro, 
occasionally  lifting  one  hand  to  the  ear,  and  frequently  ad- 
vancing a  few  steps  up  the  room  and  then  retiring  again, 
closely  followed  from  behind  by  two  or  three  musicians  who 
played  accompaniments  on  instruments  called  Sarahgl  and 
Tabla  (tom-toms).     The  loves,  quarrels,  and   reconciliations 


382  Marriage  Ceremonies. 

of  Krishna  and  his  wives,  especially  his  wife  Radha,  formed 
the  subject  of  their  songs,  which  were  kept  up  incessantly  for 
hours,  no  native  spectators  appearing  to  find  them  tedious. 
I  was  told  that  a  fee  of  1000  rupees  is  sometimes  paid  to  a 
first-rate  Nach  girl  for  one  night's  performance. 

The  European  guests  congregated  in  the  balcony.  From 
that  vantage-ground  we  looked  down  on  a  sea  of  turbaned 
heads  and  coloured  dresses,  brilliantly  lighted  up  and  set  off 
by  a  glorious  background  of  cocoa-nut  palms,  tropical  plants, 
and  trees  in  full  foliage.  It  was  like  a  fairy  scene  on  enchanted 
ground,  and  our  host,  with  his  high  hat  and  spotless  white 
dress,  might  have  been  taken  for  the  magician  by  whose  art 
the  marvellous  spectacle  had  been  conjured  up  before  us. 

A  more  human  exhibition  of  his  power  followed,  when, 
after  garlanding  us  himself  with  jasmine  wreaths,  he  beckoned 
to  his  servants,  who  feasted  us  with  iced  champagne,  and  pre- 
sented every  European  visitor  with  bouquets  of  roses  sprinkled 
with  rose-water.  Then  we  were  all  formally  introduced  to  the 
two  bridegrooms,  whose  ages  were  about  twenty  and  eighteen 
— for  our  host  was  too  enlightened  a  man  to  allow  his  sons  to 
marry  when  mere  children- — the  brides,  respectively  aged 
fourteen  and  twelve,  being  carefully  kept  out  of  sight. 

On  the  fourth  evening,  when  we  were  again  invited,  there 
was  a  still  greater  assemblage  of  people.  On  our  arrival 
a  vast  throng  was  preparing  to  accompany  the  night-pro- 
cession to  the  houses  of  the  brides.  Again  the  whole  garden 
was  illuminated.  Again  it  was  thronged  with  visitors,  or 
rather  on  this  occasion  literally  alive  and  resonant  with  an 
excited  throng  of  about  5000  people,  who  surged  like  a 
roaring  ocean,  while  four  bands  of  music  struck  up  different 
tunes  in  different  parts  of  the  grounds,  and  the  same  Nach 
girls  entertained  the  guests  in  the  drawing-room. 

Then  the  procession  gradually  formed  to  conduct  the  bride- 
grooms to  the  houses  of  the  brides.  The  two  bridegrooms  in 
superb  dresses  of  gold  tissue,  with  high  jewelled  hats — each  of 


Marriage  Ceremonies.  383 

which  was  said  to  be  worth  two  or  three  thousand  pounds — 
and  necklaces  of  emeralds  and  diamonds,  were  placed  on  richly 
caparisoned  horses  covered  with  white  flowers.  Crimson  um- 
brellas were  held  over  their  heads,  and  silver  fans  waved 
near  them.  About  3000  native  gentlemen  and  loco  ladies — 
Hindu  and  Pars! — in  brilliant  coloured  dresses,  closely  packed 
and  all  talking  and  singing  together,  formed  themselves  into  a 
procession,  while  the  bands  led  the  way.  The  men  went  first, 
then  came  the  mounted  bridegrooms,  then  two  ladies  carrying 
lanterns,  and  then  the  whole  crowd  of  ladies  followed. 

We  European  guests  wound  up  the  procession  in  car- 
riages. At  length  we  alighted  and  threaded  our  way  through 
a  lane  made  for  us  into  a  large  tent,  where  we  found  all  the 
ladies,  gorgeously  arrayed,  and  squatting  in  what  to  us  ap- 
peared rather  unladylike  positions  on  the  ground  around  the 
youngest  of  the  bridegrooms,  who  was  also  squatting  in  their 
midst.  The  thronging,  jostling,  and  heat  were  intense,  and 
the  talking,  joking,  and  excitement  quite  bewildering.  Mean- 
while one  of  the  brides  was  brought  in  and  made  to  sit  down 
on  the  ground  in  front  of  the  bridegroom.  She  was  carried 
in  the  arms  of  her  uncle,  her  head  and  face  closely  veiled, 
and  covered  with  a  deep  red  and  yellow  silk  shawl  of  great 
value. 

Leaving  this  curious  scene  before  it  was  concluded,  we  were 
taken  through  the  crush  of  people  to  the  top  of  a  gallery, 
whence  we  viewed  another  stage  of  the  marriage  ceremony. 
This  took  place  under  another  canopy  equally  thronged  with 
people.  The  crowd  here  was  in  a  fever  of  excitement  waiting 
for  the  appearance  of  the  elder  bridegroom,  who  ought  to 
have  been  received  by  his  mother-in-law.  This  however  was 
impossible,  as  she  was  a  widow.  Another  lady,  therefore, 
came  forward  on  his  entrance  and  made  a  red  mark  on  his 
forehead.  Next  a  number  of  Brahmans,  after  placing  the 
bridegroom  on  a  stool,  proceeded  to  worship  the  god  Gancsa 
— the  god  who,  as  we  have  seen  (p.  216),  defends  every  under- 


384  Marriage  Ceremonies. 

taking  from  the  lets  and  hindrances  caused  by  evil  demons. 
Sacred  texts  were  also  repeated,  or  rather  muttered  in  an 
inaudible  tone.  Then  preparations  were  made  for  receiving 
the  bride,  who  was  brought  in  by  her  maternal  uncle  and 
placed  on  a  stool  opposite  the  bridegroom.  Her  face  was 
of  course  completely  veiled,  and  her  body  kept  bent,  in  token, 
I  presume,  of  maidenly  modesty  and  feminine  humility. 

At  the  same  time  two  officiating  priests  squatted  down  on 
one  side  of  the  pair,  and  the  acting  mother  and  father-in-law 
on  the  other  side. 

The  principal  religious  ceremony  now  began.  First  of  all, 
one  of  the  Brahmans  took  a  piece  of  consecrated  cloth  and 
fastened  one  end  of  it  to  the  bridegroom's  dress  and  the  other 
to  that  of  the  bride.  Next  the  hands  of  the  bridegroom  and 
bride  were  joined  together  and  crossed  under  this  cloth,  and 
two  ladies  made  marks  with  red  paint  on  their  faces  and  threw 
garlands  of  flowers  round  their  shoulders.  After  this,  one  of 
the  priests  took  a  sacred  cord  and  wound  it  round  the  necks 
of  bride  and  bridegroom,  joining  them  thus  together  while 
muttering  prayers  and  texts.  Then  the  bridegroom's  hands 
were  placed  in  milk.  Sundry  sprinklings  of  red  powder,  rice 
grains,  cocoa-nut  milk,  and  water  followed. 

The  remainder  of  the  ceremony  was  very  complicated  and 
tedious,  and  we  were  not  allowed  to  witness  it  all. 

The  bridegroom  and  bride  were,  I  believe,  taken  to  another 
room,  where  more  red  marks  were  applied  and  money  pre- 
sented by  the  bridegroom.  Then  they  were  brought  back  to 
the  tent,  where  earthen  pots  were  placed  at  the  four  corners 
and  a  consecrated  fire  lighted.  Afterwards  the  bride  and 
bridegroom  walked  four  times  round  the  tent  hand  in  hand. 
Then  the  bridegroom  put  his  arm  round  the  bride's  neck,  and 
threw  barley,  betel-nuts,  and  oil-seeds  into  the  consecrated 
fire,  the  Brahmans  at  the  same  time  throwing  in  ghee,  while 
the  pair  walked  three  times  round  the  sacred  flames,  each 
time  in  seven  steps  (see  p.  364). 


Marriage  Cercmofties,  385 

It  is  easy  from  all  this  to  sec  that  some  portions  of  the 
ceremonial  are  little  changed  since  the  time  of  Asvalayana 
(see  p.  363),  whose  collection  of  rules  (sutras)  was  probably 
composed  more  than  2500  years  ago. 

About  midnight,  when  the  whole  day's  ritual  was  brought 
to  a  close,  the  bride  and  bridegroom  played  together  at  a 
kind  of  game  like  that  known  among  schoolboys  as  odd  and 
even,  money  being  used  instead  of  marbles.  More  cere- 
monies followed  on  the  succeeding  days,  till  on  the  eighth 
day  the  bride  and  bridegroom  went  together  to  the  temple  of 
Prosperity  (IMahfi-lakshmi),  near  Bombay,  and  worshipped 
the  goddess  there.  This  was  the  grand  finale.  The  two 
brides  then  followed  their  husbands,  and  took  up  their  abode 
in  the  house  of  their  father-in-law.  The  sums  spent  on  the 
festivities  must  have  been  enormous. 

This  remarkable  marriage  of  two  young  men  of  high  rank 
at  the  respective  ages  of  18  and  20  was  quite  an  exceptional 
occurrence.  The  legal  ceremony  is  generally  performed 
eight  or  ten  years  earlier.  It  must  not,  however,  be  sup- 
posed that,  when  a  boy  is  thus  married  in  childhood,  he 
therefore  begins  life  early  as  a  householder  on  his  own  ac- 
count. His  first  lessons  in  reading  and  writing  probably 
commenced  at  the  time  of  his  betrothal.  When  he  has 
been  made  at  the  age  of  9  or  10,  or  a  little  later,  to  undergo 
the  ceremony  of  marriage,  he  is  old  enough  to  understand 
that  he  must  commence  learning  in  earnest.  PI  is  boyish 
education  is  therefore  carried  on  till  he  and  his  wife  have 
attained  puberty  (generally  at  the  age  of  15  or  16  in  the  case 
of  the  boy  and  11  or  12  in  the  case  of  the  girl).  Then  comes 
the  third  and  concluding  matrimonial  act,  when  he  lives  with 
liis  wife  as  her  actual  husband. 

Even  then  his  education  is  by  no  means  ended.  He  is  still 
a  mere  schoolboy  or  collegian  residing  at  home  with  his 
parents,  and  continuing  to  do  so  long  after  he  has  children 
of  his  own.     I   have  not  unfrequently  examined  the  senior 

C  c 


386  CJioice  of  a  Profession. 

classes  at  Indian  High  Schools  and  Colleges  in  which  some 
of  the  boys  have  been  fathers. 

And  here  it  should  be  mentioned  that  in  Brahman  families 
of  the  present  day  a  boy's  parents  may  choose  for  him  either 
a  religious  or  secular  career.  Brahmans,  we  know,  are  not 
necessarily  priests,  but  simply  a  class  of  men  divided,  like  our- 
selves, into  two  great  divisions  of  clergy  (sometimes  designated 
by  the  general  term  Bhikshukas)  and  laity  (Grihasthas  ^). 
The  clergy  may  be  family  priests  (purohita)  who  perform  the 
Sanskara  ceremonies,  but  are  often  very  ignorant,  or  they 
may  be  spiritual  teachers  (Gurus)  who  teach  the  mantras 
and  prayers,  or  they  may  be  men  trained  in  sacred  learning. 
These  become  either  Vaidik  priests  and  are  sent  to  special 
schools  where  they  are  trained  in  Vedic  lore  and  ritual  by 
Vaidik  and  Yajilika  priests,  or  they  may  be  sent  to  native 
schools  of  another  sort,  where  they  learn  either  grammar 
(vyakarana)  or  philosophy,  and  become  Sastrls  or  Pandits. 
Those  who  are  taught  grammar  also  read  the  poems  (kavyas). 
Those  who  are  trained  in  philosophy  usually  confine  them- 
selves to  the  Nyaya  and  Vedanta  systems.  These  and  the 
Vaidik  Brahmans^  generally  become  bigoted  members  of  the 
clerical  order. 

As  to  the  laity,  or  Grihasthas,  they  either  go  to  native 
institutions  for  secular  education,  or  to  some  of  the  numerous 
schools,  high  schools,  and  colleges  established  by  us.  Here 
they  learn  English,  which  they  often  speak  as  well  as  we  do. 
Here,  too,  they  are  apt  to  neglect  their  own  languages  and 
literature.     They  study  Shakspeare,  Milton,  Tennyson,  and 


'  The  term  Grihastha  ought  properly  to  be  restricted  to  'a  married 
man  and  householder,'  but  is  now  applied  generally  to  those  Brahmans 
who  do  not  live  by  priestly  work,  but  by  some  worldly  business,  such  as 
that  of  a  clerk,  etc. 

^  With  regard  to  the  Vaidik  Brahmans,  it  should  be  noted  that  they 
have  really  little  to  do  with  Vedic  sacrificial  rites  (yajna,  srauta-karman), 
which  are  now  out  of  fashion.  Their  chief  work  is  connected  with 
smarta-karma  or  domestic  ritual. 


Stains  of  JVomen.  387 

all  our  standard  authors,  and  aspire  to  become  English  writers 
themselves.  Here,  too,  they  learn  to  ignore,  if  not  to  despise, 
their  own  religions  without  becoming  Christians. 

In  regard  to  the  girls  of  the  present  period,  the  general  feel- 
ing is  that  women  are  mere  machines  for  producing  children 
(compare  Manu  IX.  96).  This  is  the  true  explanation  of 
their  present  position.  They  are  betrothed  at  three  or  four 
years  of  age,  and  married  at  eight  or  nine  to  boys  of  whom 
they  know  nothing.  They  are  taken  to  their  boy-husbands' 
homes  at  the  age  of  11  or  12.  From  that  moment  they  lose 
their  freedom  and  even  their  personality;  and  though  they  do 
not  adopt  their  husband's  name  as  European  wives  do,  they 
merge  their  whole  individuality  in  the  persons  of  their  hus- 
bands. They  may  be  loved,  and  they  are  rarely  ill-used,  as 
they  too  frequently  are  in  Christian  countries,  but  they  are 
ignored  as  separate  units  in  society.  For  example,  they  never 
desecrate  a  husband's  name  by  pronouncing  it ;  they  call 
him  simply  'lord,'  or  'master,'  or  'the  chosen'  (vara):  and 
they  themselves  are  never  directly  alluded  to  by  their  hus- 
bands in  conversation.  For  another  person  to  mention  their 
names  or  enquire  after  their  health  would  be  a  breach  of 
etiquette.  They  often  become  mothers  at  12  or  13.  Their  life 
is  then  spent  in  petty  household  duties,  in  superintending 
the  family  cuisine,  in  a  wearisome  round  of  trivial  religious 
acts.  Yet  in  religion  they  are  generally  treated  as  Sudras, 
or  people  of  the  unprivileged  caste.  They  are  allowed  no 
formal  initiation  into  the  Hindu  faith,  no  investiture  with  the 
sacred  thread,  no  spiritual  second  birth.  Marriage  is  to  them 
the  substitute  for  regeneration.  No  other  purificatory  rite  is 
permitted  to  them.  They  never  read,  repeat,  nor  listen  to  the 
Veda  ;  and  if  they  belong  to  the  upper  classes  are  liable  to  be 
cooped  up  behind  Pardahs  or  immured  in  gloomy  apartments, 
where  they  are  condemned  to  vegetate  in  profound  ignorance  of 
the  world  around  them,  and  in  an  atmosphere  of  dull  monotony 
only  enlivened  by  foolish  chatter  and  old  wives'  gossip. 

C  c  3 


388      Status  of  Women.     Householder  s  duties. 

Yet  it  must  be  carefully  noted  that  the  seclusion  and 
ignorance  of  women,  which  are  in  reality  mainly  due  to 
Muhammadan  influences,  do  not  exist  to  the  same  degree 
in  provinces  and  districts  unaffected  by  these  influences  ;  as, 
for  instance,  in  the  Maratha  country,  Western  India,  and 
elsewhere. 

And  as  bearing  on  this  point  I  may  here  direct  attention 
to  some  of  the  rules  laid  down  by  the  ancient  Hindu  sage 
Vatsyayana  (author  of  the  Kama-sutra  ^)  in  regard  to  Indian 
domestic  life,  proving  that  women  enjoyed  greater  liberty 
and  a  higher  status  in  former  times. 

In  the  first  place  he  recommends  parents  to  allow  their 
children  complete  freedom  and  indulgence  till  they  are  five 
years  of  age.  Then  from  five  to  sixteen  they  are  to  learn 
some  of  the  fourteen  sciences  and  the  sixty-four  arts.  Among 
the  sciences  are  comprised  the  Vedas,  Puranas,  Upapuranas, 
law,  medicine,  astronomy,  arithmetic,  grammar,  etc.  The 
enumeration  of  sixty-four  arts  proves  the  existence  of  con- 
siderable civilization  at  a  time  when  the  greater  part  of 
Europe  was  immersed  in  ignorance.  Among  them  are  sing- 
ing, instrumental  music,  dancing,  painting,  composing  poems, 
chemistry,  mineralogy,  gardening,  the  military  art,  carpentry, 
architecture,  gymnastics,  etc. 

After  education  a  man  is  to  become  a  householder  and  to 
strive  after  the  three  great  objects  of  human  life — religious 
merit  (dharma),  wealth  (artha),  and  enjoyment  (kama)^  He  is 
to  win  a  suitable  wife  for  himself  by  his  own  efforts,  and  not  to 
allow  others  to  choose  for  him.  The  sage  then  expatiates  on 
the  most  approved  methods  of  making  love,  and  declares  that 
no  fair  maiden  can  ever  be  won  without  a  good  deal  of  talking. 

^  An  ancient  work  quite  as  old  as  the  first  century  of  our  era.  I  ought 
to  mention  that  a  book  called  'Early  Ideas,'  by  Anaiyan,  gives  a  sum- 
mary of  Vatsyayana's  rules,  which  I  have  found  very  well  done  and  very 
useful  here. 

^  These  are  constantly  alluded  to  in  Indian  writings.  A  fourth  object, 
viz.  final  beatitude  (moksha',  is  generally  added. 


The  Model  Wife.  389 

The  house  in  which  the  husband  and  wife  arc  to  take  up 
their  abode  should  be  in  the  neic^hbourhood  of  good  men. 
with  a  garden  surrounding  it,  and  with  at  least  two  rooms, 
an  outer  and  an  inner.  Many  details  then  follow  in  re- 
gard to  the  proper  conduct  of  the  married  couple.  The 
husband  is  to  perform  all  his  necessary  duties,  and,  as  to  the 
wife,  she  is  to  be  a  pattern  of  perfection.  She  is  to  keep 
all  her  husband's  secrets,  never  to  reveal  the  amount  of  his 
wealth,  to  excel  all  other  women  in  attractiveness  of  appear- 
ance, in  attention  to  her  husband,  in  knowledge  of  cookery, 
in  general  cleverness,  in  ruling  her  servants  wisely,  in  hos- 
pitality, in  thrift,  in  adapting  expenditure  to  income,  and  in 
superintending  every  minute  circumstance  of  her  family's 
daily  life.  Finally,  she  is  to  co-operate  with  her  husband 
in  pursuing  the  three  great  objects  of  life — religious  merit, 
wealth,  and  enjoyment ;  and  it  is  remarkable  that  to  neglect 
the  third  is  as  sinful  as  to  be  careless  about  the  other  two. 
This  kind  of  perfect  woman  is  called  a  Pad  mini,  or  lotus-like 
woman.  Three  other  kinds  are  specified  :  the  (Jitrinl,  or 
woman  of  varied  accomplishments;  the  Sahkhinl,  or  conch- 
like woman  ;  and  the  HastinT,  or  elephant-like  woman. 

In  ancient  and  medieval  times  women  were  not  unfre- 
quently  Sanskrit  scholars,  and  lady  Pandits  are  not  wanting 
even  in  the  present  day. 

It  is  interesting  to  compare  the  definition  of  a  wife  given  in 
Maha-bharata  I.  3028,  etc.,  of  which  the  following  is  a  nearly 
literal  version  : — 

A  wife  is  half  the  man,  his  truest  friend  ; 

A  loving  wife  is  a  perpetual  spring 

Of  virtue,  pleasure,  wealth  ;   a  faithful  wife 

Is  his  best  aid  in  seeking  heavenly  bliss  ; 

A  sweetly-speaking  wife  is  a  companion 

In  solitude,  a  father  in  advice, 

A  mother  in  all  seasons  of  distress, 

A  rest  in  passing  through  life's  wilderness. 


CHAPTER    XV. 

Religious  Life  of  the  Orthodox  Hindu  Householder. 

Let  me  next  direct  attention  to  the  religious  life  of  the 
strictly  orthodox  Brahman  who  has  attained  to  the  position 
of  possessing  a  separate  house  of  his  own. 

I  pass  over  the  home-life  of  the  anglicized  Brahman  of 
advanced  ideas,  who  has  been  educated  under  the  auspices 
of  the  British  Government,  but  has  not  on  that  account  been 
able  to  avert  the  calamity  of  marriage  with  an  uneducated 
and  bigoted  wife  of  his  own  rank,  or  rid  himself  of  all  the 
troublesome  fetters  of  custom  and  caste.  Such  a  life  com- 
bines social  conditions  which  are  incompatible.  The  result 
is  unpleasing.  A  combination  is  produced  which  is  not 
unlike  the  unwholesome  product  of  a  forced  chemical  union 
between  elements  which  naturally  repel  each  other.  What 
I  desire  rather  to  describe  in  this  chapter  is  the  religious  life 
of  the  husband  and  wife  who  strive  to  perform  their  daily 
duties  according  to  the  orthodox  Brahmanical  usage  of 
more  modern  times. 

And  here  it  may  be  well  to  introduce  the  subject  of  the 
householder's  life  by  glancing  at  the  arrangements  of  the 
material  house  which  forms  his  abode. 

Of  course  the  houses  of  the  poor  in  villages  or  in  the 
native  quarters  of  even  large  cities  need  no  description. 
They  are  mere  mud  erections  with  bamboo  roofs  and  thatch. 
Those  of  the  grade  next  above  the  poorest  are  little  better. 


AnangcmaU  of  a  Modern  House.  391 

They  may  be  occasionally  built  of  brick  and  may  be  one 
story  high,  but  have  seldom  more  than  two  or  three  rooms. 
Those  of  the  richer  classes,  on  the  other  hand,  are  always 
constructed  of  brick  or  some  durable  material,  and,  like  the 
houses  of  Pompeii,  usually  have  an  interior  court  or  quad- 
rangle. A  door  from  the  street,  and  sometimes  a  handsome 
archway,  opens  into  this  quadrangle,  which  is  surrounded  on 
all  sides  by  high  walls.  Over  the  archway  or  entrance  is 
a  large  room,  which  serves  as  a  meeting-place  for  the  men 
of  the  family  and  their  male  visitors.  A  similar  large  and 
airy  apartment  occupies  the  whole  front  of  the  house  in 
every  story. 

It  is  a  melancholy  fact  that,  as  a  general  rule,  all  the 
well  -  lighted  rooms  with  windows  and  verandahs  looking 
into  the  street  are  appropriated  by  the  male  members  of 
the  household.  On  each  floor  a  gallery  running  round  the 
entire  court-yard  leads  to  small  chambers  scarcely  worthy 
of  the  name  of  rooms,  where  the  female  members  of  the 
family  are  to  be  found  by  those  who  have  the  right  of 
entree.  When  there  is  no  court-yard  the  women  occupy 
the  upper  floor,  to  reach  which  there  is  usually  in  one  corner 
a  steep  wooden  staircase.  The  women's  apartments  either 
look  into  the  quadrangle  below — where  the  family  cows 
or  goats  are  often  the  chief  objects  of  interest — or  on  a 
dead  wall,  never  on  a  street.  There  is  little  or  no  furniture 
anywhere  in  the  house,  but  in  one  room  is  a  strong  box  con- 
taining the  family  jewelry.  The  ground  floor  has  a  kitchen, 
which  is  usually  also  the  dining-room.  There  are  also  the 
store-rooms  for  grain  and  fuel,  and  even  stalls  for  cattle.  In 
one  of  the  lower  apartments,  or  in  an  adjacent  enclosure, 
there  is  usually  a  well  or  reservoir  for  water.  Here  there  are 
numerous  shelves  with  a  store  of  well-burnished  brass  water- 
vessels  in  constant  readiness. 

Another  room  on  the  ground  floor  is  dedicated  to  daily 
worship. 


392  Religious  Services. 

Here  there  is  a  small  wooden  temple  (Mandira)  or  some 
sacred  receptacle  for  the  household  gods,  the  Indian  Lares 
and  Penates,  which  in  orthodox  Brahman  families — more 
especially  among  the  Maratha  people — are  generally  five 
consecrated  symbols  representing  the  five  principal  Hindu 
gods ;  to  wit,  the  two  stones  (Sala-grama  and  Bana-lihga), 
described  at  p.  69  ;  a  metallic  stone  representing  the  female 
principle  in  nature  (Sakti) ;  a  crystal  representing  the  Sun 
(Surya) ;  and  a  red  stone  representing  Ganesa,  the  remover 
of  obstacles  (p.  211}.  Here  domestic  worship  is  commonly 
performed  every  day  by  each  member  of  every  respectable 
Hindu  family.  Here,  too,  or  in  an  adjacent  court,  there  is 
generally  a  sacred  Tulasi  plant  (see  p.  '^'>,'^,  to  which  the 
women  of  the  family  offer  adoration. 

Finally,  in  this  part  of  the  house  the  few  remaining  orthodox 
(Smarta)  Brahmans  in  different  parts  of  India  sometimes 
maintain  a  sacred  fire.  For  it  must  be  noted  here  that, 
although  the  ancient  fire-worship  and  sacrificial  ritual  have 
almost  disappeared,  yet  at  Benares  and  other  strongholds  of 
Brahmanism  a  certain  number  of  Brahmans  of  the  old  school 
still  offer  daily  oblations  in  a  sacred  fire  which  they  main- 
tain in  their  own  houses,  while  they  conform  also  to  the  more 
recent  practices  enjoined  in  the  Puranas.  Even  the  old  Vcdic 
Soma-sacrifices  are  sometimes  performed  by  such  men  on 
great  public  occasions. 

For  example,  a  Soma-sacrificc  was  instituted  not  long  ago 
at  Poona,  and  at  Wai  near  Mahabalesvar.  Again,  four  or 
five  years  ago  a  rich  man,  named  Dhundiraj  Vinayak  Sudas, 
had  three  Agnishtomas,  one  Vajapeya,  and  one  Aptoryama 
sacrifice  (all  of  them  parts  of  the  Jyotishtoma  Soma-sacrifice) 
performed  at  Allbag  in  the  Kohkan.  He  employed  a  vast 
number  of  Pandits,  Yajnikas,  Srotriyas,  and  Agnihotrls,  and 
spent  at  least  20,000  rupees.  In  the  course  of  the  cere- 
monies forty-two  goats  were  killed.  They  were  cooked  on 
the  fire  called  Samitragni,  and  partly  eaten  by  the  priests, 


Religions  Services.  393 

partly  offered  in  the  sacrificial  fire.  At  the  end  of  each  cere- 
mony a  supplementary  sacrifice  (called  Avabhrita)  was  insti- 
tuted with  the  sole  object  of  atoning  for  mistakes,  defects, 
or  omissions  in  carrying  out  the  detail  of  the  preceding 
ritual.  The  supposed  aim  of  all  these  elaborate  and  ex- 
pensive ceremonies  was  to  secure  the  sacrificers'  admission 
into  heaven  (svarga)  after  death. 

But  such  Vedic  sacrifices  are  everywhere  either  obsolete 
or  obsolescent,  and  animals  are  now  seldom  killed  in  India, 
except  as  offerings  to  the  bloody  goddess  Kali — a  goddess 
unknown  in  Vedic  times — who  is  supposed,  as  we  have 
already  seen  (p.  190),  to  delight  in  drinking  blood,  and,  if 
if  not  satiated  with  the  blood  of  animals,  will  take  that  of 
men  ;  this  kind  of  sacrifice  (bali)  being  quite  distinct  from 
the  old  Vedic  Yajna,  Homa,  and  Soma  sacrificial  rites. 

But  although  the  daily  ritual  acts  of  a  modern  Brahman 
are  founded  on  the  teaching  of  the  later  sacred  works,  called 
Puranas  and  Tantras,  yet  it  is  remarkable  that  the  repetition 
of  Vedic  texts  (mantras)  is  still  retained  and  is  still  essential 
to  the  due  performance  of  every  modern  religious  service. 

And  let  no  one  suppose  that  a  pious  Brahman's  daily 
services  in  the  present  day  are  less  irksome  or  tedious 
than  they  were  in  olden  times.  If  he  was  then  fettered,  he 
is  now  enchained.  A  modern  Brahman  of  the  orthodox 
school  will  sometimes  devote  four  or  five  hours  a  day  to  a 
laborious  routine  of  religious  forms  ^  Every  faculty  and 
function  of  his  nature  is  bound  by  an  iron  chain  of  traditional 
observance.  For  example,  his  daily  duties  now  comprise — 
I,  Religious  bathing;  2.  Worship  of  the  Supreme  Being 
by  meditation  and  repetition  of  prayers  etc.  at  two  out  of  the 
three  Sandhyas,  or  morning,  midday,  and  evening  services  ; 
3.  Brahma-yajiia,  or  worship  of  the  Supreme  Being  by  a 
formal    repetition  of  the   first  words  of  every  sacred   book 

*  The  amount  of  time  still  wasted  on  superstitious  obser\ances, 
even  since  the  spread  of  education,  is  lamentable. 


394  ReIigio2cs  Services. 

(regarded  also  as  an  act  of  homage  to  all  those  saints  and 
sages  to  whom  the  Veda  was  revealed) ;  4.  Tarpana,  or  the 
threefold  daily  oblation  of  water  to  the  secondary  gods,  to  the 
sages,  and  to  the  Pitris  ;  5-  Homa,  or  sacrifice  to  fire  by  fuel, 
rice,  clarified  butter,  etc.,  already  described  ;  6.  Deva-puja,  or 
the  daily  worship  of  the  gods  in  the  domestic  sanctuary. 

There  is,  moreover,  the  Vaisvadeva^  service  before  the  mid- 
day meal,  with  offerings  of  food  (called  bali-harana)  to  all 
beings  (bhuta),  including  animals.  There  is  the  daily  homage 
to  men  by  the  offering  of  food,  etc.  to  guests  and  beggars. 
There  is  the  daily  visit  to  the  neighbouring  temple,  not 
necessarily  for  prayer  or  praise,  but  simply  for  bowing  before 
the  idol  or  for  merely  looking  at  it  (darsana)  after  its  decora- 
tion by  the  idol-priest.  There  is  the  observance  of  solemn 
fasts  twice  a  month,  and  on  other  special  days.  There  is  the 
reading  of  passages  from  some  of  the  Puranas^,  held  to  be 
a  highly  meritorious  act.  There  is  the  performance,  if  circum- 
stances permit,  of  a  pilgrimage  to  some  holy  shrine.  Finally, 
there  is  the  last  great  Sanskara  performed  at  death,  called  the 
last  sacrifice  (antyeshti),  when  the  body  ought  to  be  burnt  by 
the  same  sacred  fire  which  was  originally  kindled  by  husband 
and  wife  on  the  domestic  hearth.  This  is  an  outline  of  an 
orthodox  Brahman  householder's  life  in  modern  times. 

I  now  proceed  to  fill  in  the  details  of  some  parts  of  the 
picture  more  fully. 

In  the  first  place,  then,  the  orthodox  Brahman  must  rise  from 
his  bed  before  sunrise.  And  be  it  observed  that  his  wife  must 
be  up  and  stirring  long  before  him.     She  may  have  to  light  a 

'  Parasara  does  not  include  the  Vaisvadeva  in  his  account  of  the  daily- 
duties.  According  to  him  there  are  only  '  shat  karmani,'  six  acts  which 
are  nitya  or  ahnika  acts,  to  be  performed  every  day.  These  are — i .  Snana, 
2.  Sandhya-japa,  3.  Svadhyaya,  4.  Pitri-tarpana,  5.  Homa,  6.  Devata- 
pujana.  A  Brahman's  six  duties  as  enjoined  by  Manu  (X.  75)  are 
different.  They  are — I.  repeating  the  Veda,  2.  teaching  it,  3.  sacrificing, 
4.  conducting  sacrifices  for  others,  5.  giving,  6.  receiving  gifts. 

^  Especially  the  Durga-mahatmya  of  the  Markandeya-purana. 


0?'difia7y  Dress.  395 

lamp,  give  the  children  a  few  sweetmeats,  sweep  out  the  rooms, 
sprinkle  them  with  water,  and  occasionally  smear  the  flcjor 
with  a  mixture  of  moist  earth  and  the  supposed  purifying 
excreta  of  a  cow.  If  she  lives  in  a  village  and  is  poor — and  a 
high-caste  family  may  often  be  poor — she  will  probably  stick- 
cakes  of  this  last  substance  on  the  outer  walls  of  the  house  to 
dry  for  fuel.  Then  perhaps  her  next  act  may  be  to  spin  a 
little  cotton,  or  to  examine  the  state  of  the  family  garments. 

And  here  a  few  particulars  about  the  dress  of  the  house- 
hold may  be  suitably  introduced. 

The  poorer  classes  in  India  are  never  oppressed  by  a  super- 
fluity of  clothing.  A  shred  of  cloth  round  the  loins  satisfies  a 
poor  working  man's  ideas  of  propriety.  Great  ascetics  and 
pretenders  to  extraordinary  sanctity  were  once  in  the  habit  of 
going  about  perfectly  nude,  until  British  law  interposed  to 
prevent  the  continuance  of  the  nuisance.  Even  respectable 
Hindus  are  satisfied  with  two  garments  made  of  white  cotton 
cloth,  one  called  the  Dhoti,  or  waist-cloth,  tucked  round  the 
waist  and  reaching  to  the  feet ;  the  other,  called  the  Uttarlya, 
a  shawl-like  upper  garment  without  seam  from  top  to  bottom, 
which  is  thrown  gracefully  round  the  shoulders  like  a  Roman 
toga.  Often,  however,  an  under-jacket,  or  close  coat,  cut  into 
form  and  called  an  Ahgaraksha  or  Ahgarakhii  (body-protector), 
is  worn  under  this  upper  garment.  Sometimes  also  a  piece 
of  cloth  is  carried  over  the  arm  to  be  used  as  a  scarf  in  cold 
weather. 

It  has  been  said  by  some  writer  of  homely  truths  in  England 
that  a  good  wife  ought  never  to  have  '  a  soul  above  buttons.' 
Happily  for  a  Hindii  wife's  peace  of  mind  her  husband's  two 
garments  are  gloriously  independent  of  all  fastenings.  Nor 
need  she  trouble  herself  to  learn  needle-work.  Yet  in  some 
parts  of  India  she  considers  it  a  high  honour  to  be  permitted 
to  wash  any  article  of  clothing  which  has  covered  the  sacred 
person  of  her  lord  and  master. 

In  regard  to  head-coverings,  the  greater  number  of  people. 


39^  Dress  and  Jewelry. 

including  the  poorer  Brahmans,  in  Bengal,  the  Dekhan,  and 
Southern  India  never  wear  anything,  though  in  cold  weather 
they  like  to  muffle  up  their  heads  and  faces  in  their  upper 
garments.  In  other  places  the  better  classes  wear  turbans 
(Sanskrit  UshnTsha^),  which  in  Western  and  Northern  India 
are  often  made  of  a  piece  of  fine  cloth  from  twenty  to  fifty 
yards  long,  folded  according  to  the  caste,  and  called  Phenta^. 

As  to  shoes,  at  least  three-fourths  of  the  inhabitants  of 
India  never  use  them  at  all,  and  even  the  rich — except  those 
who  are  thoroughly  Europeanized — dispense  with  stockings. 
Those  who  wear  leather  shoes  like  to  get  rid  of  them  when- 
ever they  can,  not  from  any  idea  of  the  inconvenience  of 
leather,  but  from  its  supposed  impurity.  It  is  common  for  the 
most  dignified  and  refined  gentlemen  to  come  into  one's  pre- 
sence with  naked  feet,  leaving  their  shoes  outside  the  room. 

A  woman's  dress,  like  a  man's,  also  consists  of  two  pieces, 
namely,  a  kind  of  bodice,  and  a  long  garment  called  a  sari  (sati) 
— sometimes  ten  or  even  fifteen  yards  long — which  is  first 
tucked  round  the  waist  with  many  folds  in  front,  and  then 
brought  gracefully  over  the  shoulder,  and  frequently  over 
the  head.  A  third  garment  is  now  occasionally  worn  under- 
neath, and  some  adopt  the  Muhammadan  fashion  of  wearing 
a  kind  of  drawers.  Happily  for  economical  husbands,  no 
such  thing  as  fashion  in  women's  dress  exists  in  the  East. 
Indeed  it  may  be  safely  affirmed  that  there  has  been  little 
change  in  the  character  of  woman's  apparel  for  3000  years. 

But  what  the  householder  gains  by  his  wife's  moderation 
in  dress  he  loses  by  her  taste  for  expensive  jewelry  and 
ornaments.  No  woman  would  dare  to  hold  up  her  head 
among  her  female  companions  unless  well  provided  with 
a  sufficient  assortment  of  ornaments  of  eight  principal  kinds 
— nose-rings,  ear-rings,  necklaces,  bracelets  (commonly  called 

^  In  Bombay  the  Baniyahs  wear  high  hats  slanting  backwards,  and 
the  Parsis  do  the  same. 


2 


When  made  up  into  a  head-dress  it  is  called  PagrT 


Omc 


VIS. 


397 


bangles),  armlets,  finger-rings,  anklets  and  toe-rings,  and  some 
of  these,  notably  the  nose-rings,  often  contain  costly  gems. 

As  to  children's  attire,  the  children  of  the  rich  are  for  the 
most  part  innocent  of  all  clothing  till  about  the  third  year, 
while  those  of  the  poor  run  about  as  they  came  into  the  world 
up  to  six  or  seven  years  of  age,  without  a  single  encumbrance, 
except  possibly  a  waistband  and  a  few  wrist-ornaments. 

To  return  to  the  duties  of  the  householder's  wife  (grihinT). 
One  of  her  earliest  acts,  if  she  is  poor,  will  be  to  bruise  the 
rice,  cleanse  it  from  husk,  or  grind  some  kind  of  grain.  Then, 
whether  rich  or  poor,  she  must  above  all  things  attend  to  her 
kitchen ;  and  make  it  a  model  of  absolute  cleanliness — nay 
more,  a  sacred  inviolable  spot  which  nothing  impure  must 
ever  enter  (see  p.  128). 

With  regard  to  the  actual  culinary  operations,  the  whole 
comfort  of  the  family  depends  of  course  on  the  wife's  super- 
intendence and  skill.  In  this  respect  very  few  mothers  of 
families  in  India  ever  fall  short  of  the  highest  standard. 

Omens. 

Then  one  of  a  wife's  duties  should  be  to  keep  all  bad 
omens  out  of  her  husband's  way,  or  manage  to  make  him 
look  at  something  lucky  in  the  early  morning.  I  may  here 
point  out  that  a  knowledge  of  omens  (nimitta-juana)  is  in- 
cluded among  the  sixty-four  arts  enumerated  by  Vatsyayana, 
and  is  not  the  least  important  of  them.  Different  lists  of  in- 
auspicious objects  are  given  which,  if  looked  upon  in  the  early 
morning,  might  cause  disaster.  Thus  some  believe  that  if  a 
householder's  first  act  should  be  to  cast  his  eyes  on  a  crow  on 
his  left  hand,  a  kite  on  his  right,  a  snake,  cat,  jackal,  or  hare, 
an  empty  vessel,  smoky  fire,  a  bundle  of  sticks,  a  widow,  a 
man  with  one  eye,  or  even  with  a  big  nose,  confusion  might 
be  introduced  into  the  household  for  the  rest  of  the  day.  Nay, 
grievous  calamities  micrht  befall  the  fami]\-;  and  if  the  good- 


398  Omens.     Daily  Religious  Cere^nonies. 

man  of  the  house  had  any  intention  of  undertaking  a  journey, 
he  must,  after  any  such  sights,  by  all  means  desist  from  the 
project.  On  the  other  hand,  should  the  householder's  first 
glance  rest  on  a  cow,  horse,  elephant,  parrot,  a  lizard  on 
an  east  wall,  a  clear  fire,  a  virgin,  or  two  Brahmans,  all  will 
go  right.  Again,  if  he  should  happen  to  sneeze  once,  it 
would  be  a  sure  forerunner  of  good  luck  for  the  day;  but 
if  twice,  it  would  portend  some  serious  mishap.  Finally, 
if  he  should  unfortunately  yawn,  it  might  lead  to  no  less  a 
catastrophe  than  the  entrance  of  an  evil  demon  into  his  body. 

The  Adbhuta-Brahmana  (forming  the  sixth  chapter  of  the 
Shadviosa-Brahmana)  treats  of  portents  and  omens  ^  It  is 
to  be  noted,  too,  that  both  the  Rig-veda  and  Atharva-veda 
contain  texts  which  prove  that  in  Vedic  times  birds  of  ill-omen 
were  greatly  dreaded  and  their  evil  influences  deprecated^. 

Let  us  imagine  then  all  risks  arising  from  inauspicious 
sights  well  avoided,  and  the  householder  started  on  his 
tedious  round  of  daily  religious  duties.  And  here  be  it  ob- 
served that  one  change  has  passed  over  every  Indian  house- 
hold. Manu,  we  know,  asserts  that,  according  to  a  Vedic 
ordinance,  the  husband  and  wife  ought  to  perform  religious 
rites  together  (IX.  96),  but  the  wife  has  now  no  religious 
life  in  common  with  her  husband. 

I  once  asked  a  well-educated  Brahman  why  he  acquiesced 
in  a  different  rule  of  religion  for  himself  and  his  wife.  '  Oh,' 
he  replied,  '  we  are  now  in  the  Kali-yuga,  or  age  of  universal 
degeneracy.  Our  lawgivers  have  promulgated  quite  a  new 
code  for  these  times ;  oxen  cannot  be  killed  for  sacrifices, 
and  women  in  all  religious  matters  are  practically  degraded 
to  the  position  of  Sudras.  They  are  not  allowed  to  repeat 
the  Veda,  or  to  go  through  the  morning  and  evening 
Sandhya  services.     They  never  accompany  their  husbands  to 

*  This  has  been  published  with  translation  and  notes,  together  with 
another  text  on  the  same  subject,  by  Professor  A.  Weber  of  Berlin. 
''■  See  Rig-veda  II.  42,  43,  X.  165  ;  Atharva-veda  VI.  29,  VII.  64. 


Tccth-clcaning.     BatJiing.  399 

any  places  of  worship,  and  if  they  wish  to  visit  the  temples 
they  must  go  alone.  They  cannot  be  regenerated  by  in- 
vestiture with  the  sacred  thread.  Their  only  sacrament  is 
marriage.'  Such  was  his  explanation  of  an  Indian  wife's 
inferior  religious  status.  Had  he  attributed  her  degradation 
and  seclusion  to  Muhammadan  influences  he  would  probably 
have  been  more  correct.  Alone  then,  and  unassisted  by  his 
wife,  must  the  Brahman  commence  his  diurnal  course  of 
ceremonial  observances.  His  first  important  act  after  rising 
is  to  clean  his  teeth.  A  lirfdiman  ought  to  do  this  according 
to  strict  rule,  on  pain  of  forfeiting  the  whole  merit  of  the  day's 
religious  acts.  He  ought  properly  to  use  a  twig  of  the  sacred 
fig-tree  (Vata),  but  other  kinds  of  wood  are  also  allowed  ^ 
Teeth-cleaning,  however,  is  only  preliminary  to  the  next  im- 
portant religious  act  of  the  day — bathing  (snana).  This  should 
be  performed  in  some  sacred  stream,  but  in  default  of  a  river, 
the  householder  may  use  a  pool  or  tank,  or  even,  in  case 
of  dire  necessity,  a  bath  in  his  own  house.  Before  entering 
the  water  the  bather  ought  to  say :  '  I  am  about  to  perform 
morning  ablution  in  this  sacred  stream  (the  Ganges  or  any 
other  as  the  case  may  be)  in  the  presence  of  the  gods  and 
Brahmans  with  a  view  to  the  removal  of  guilt  resulting  from 
act,  speech,  thought  — from  what  has  been  touched  and  un- 
touched, known  and  unknown,  eaten  and  not  eaten,  drunk  and 
not  drunk.'  During  the  process  of  bathing,  a  hymn  to  the  per- 
sonified Ganges,  consisting  of  eight  verses  (called  Gangashtaka), 
is  often  recited.    Its  opening  words  may  be  thus  translated: — 

Daughter  of  \'ishnu,  thou  didst  issue  forth 
From  Vishnu's  foot,  by  him  thou  art  beloved. 
Therefore  remove  from  us  the  stain  of  sin — 
From  birth  to  death  protecting  us  thy  servants. 

After  bathing  comes  the  ceremony  of  Bhasma-dharana,  or 

'  The  most  common  wood  employed  in  some  parts  of  India  is  that 
of  a  thorny  tree  called  Baval  (commonly  Babul).  Sometimes  the  N'imba 
(Nimj  is  used. 


400  Daily  Religious  Ceremonies. 

application  of  ashes.  This  is  done  by  rubbing  ashes  taken  from 
the  sacred  domestic  hearth  on  the  head  and  other  parts  of  the 
body,  with  the  repetition  of  a  prayer  to  Siva  (from  Taittirlya 
Aranyaka  X.  43): — 'I  offer  homage  to  Siva  (Sadyo-jata). 
May  he  preserve  me  in  every  birth.  Homage  to  the  source 
of  all  birth.' 

At  this  time,  also,  every  pious  Hindu  marks  his  forehead 
with  the  sacred  mark  (called  pundra  or  tilaka)  of  his  own 
peculiar  faith  or  religious  views.  When  a  man  is  a  Siva- 
worshipper,  he  does  this  with  ashes,  in  which  case  it  is  merely 
a  part  of  the  Bhasma-dharana  rite  just  described  \  Some- 
times a  perpendicular  mark,  sometimes  a  circular  one,  some- 
times three  horizontal  lines  (tri-pundra)  are  made  with  white 
earth  or  pigment  -.  Of  these  religious  markings  the  vertical 
denotes  the  impress  of  the  god  Vishnu's  feet  ^  and  the  hori- 
zontal the  three  characters  or  functions  of  Siva  (p.  80). 

I  once  said  to  a  Brahman  who  seemed  proud  of  his  perpen- 
dicular mark,  '  What^s  the  difference  between  you  and  your 
friend  there  with  a  horizontal  mark } '  '  Oh/  he  replied,  '  we 
are  as  different  in  opinions  as  the  horizon  from  the  zenith. 
He  does  his  religion  horizontally,  I  do  mine  perpendicularly. 
But  we  are  very  good  friends  notwithstanding.' 

The  next  act  is  called  Sikha-bandhana,  or  the  tying  up  in 
a  knot  of  all  the  locks  on  the  crown  of  the  head,  lest  any  loose 
particles  of  hair  thought  to  convey  impurity  should  fall  on  the 
ground  or  in  the  water. 


^  I  am  told  that  on  Ash-Wednesday  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
every  member  of  the  congregation  goes  up  to  the  altar  and  is  marked 
with  the  sign  of  the  cross.  This,  I  believe,  is  done  with  the  ashes  of 
the  palms  used  on  Palm-Sunday.  The  priest  as  he  marks  each  person 
says,  '  Dust  thou  art,  and  unto  dust  thou  shalt  return.' 

-  The  worshippers  of  Vishnu  generally  use  Goplcandana,  a  kind  of 
white  earth  brought  from  Dvarlka. 

^  It  usually  consists  of  two  upright  lines  joined  by  a  curve  at  the 
bottom.  The  Ramanuja  Vaishnavas,  as  we  have  seen,  dispute  over 
the  form  of  this  mark  (see  p.  126J. 


The  Morning  Sandhya  Service.  401 

All  preliminary  acts  and  purifications  being  now  completed, 
the  pious  Hindu  proceeds  to  the  regular  Morning  Service, 
called  Pratah-Sandhya,  performed  at  the  junction'  of  night 
and  day.  Every  one  chooses,  if  possible,  the  side  of  a  sacred 
river  or  tank  for  this  purpose,  and  every  one  conducts  the 
entire  service  by  himself.  Often  in  the  early  mornings  or 
late  in  the  evenings  I  have  watched  numerous  worshippers 
seated  at  the  water's  edge  and  going  through  the  Sandhya 
ceremonial  with  mechanical  precision.  Each  one  does  this 
separately,  and  each  one  with  slight  variations,  omissions, 
or  additions  according  to  the  practice  of  particular  localities 
or  to  the  particular  branch  of  the  Veda  to  which  he  belongs. 
No  apology  is  needed  for  inviting  attention  to  the  detail  of 
these  morning  and  evening  ceremonies,  practised  as  they  still 
are  to  this  very  day  by  millions  and  millions  of  the  people 
who  acknowledge  our  rule,  and  therefore  fraught  with  the 
deepest  interest  to  every  Englishman-. 

The  first  act  of  the  Morning  Sandhya  Service,  and,  as  stated 
before,  the  usual  preliminary  to  all  Hindu  religious  rites,  is 
sipping    water   (acamana)  ;    two   or   three    mouthfuls    being 

'  Some  derive  Sandhya  from  San-dhci,  'to  join  together'  (see  my 
Sanskrit-English  Dictionary) ;  others,  with  more  reason,  from  San-dhyai^ 
*to  meditate  in  prayer.'     Compare  the  Gayatrl  prayer,  p.  403. 

"^  My  description  of  the  Sandhya  is  abridged  from  a  paper  I  read 
before  the  fifth  Congress  of  Orientalists  at  Berlin  in  Septemljcr  i88r. 
In  that  paper,  which  is  published  in  the  Transactions  of  the  Congress, 
I  followed  a  manual  called  Brahma-karma-pustaka,  printed  at  Alibag 
in  the  Konkan,  and  given  to  me,  as  the  best  authority  for  the  ceremonies 
of  the  Rig-vedi-Brahmans  of  the  Maratha  country,  by  Mr.  Dcshmukh. 
It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  although  variations  occur  in  dift'erent 
parts  of  India,  and  that  although  abbreviated  forms  are  used  by  persons 
engaged  in  secular  pursuits,  there  are  many  strict  Rig-vedi-Brahmans 
who  go  through  the  whole  Sandhya,  Brahma-yajna,  and  Tarpana  ser- 
vices, and  in  no  part  of  India  is  the  detail  of  the  Brahmanical  ceremonial 
so  carefully  carried  out  as  in  the  Maratha  country.  I  ought  to  state  that 
Mrs.  Belnos'  book  of  drawings  and  illustrations  was  a  meritorious  work 
relatively  to  the  time  of  its  publication  ;  but  she  was  no  Sanskrit  scholar, 
and  her  descriptions,  while  full  of  the  most  obvious  inaccuracies,  make 
no  pretension  to  completeness. 

D  d 


402  The  Morning  Saud/iyd  Service. 

swallowed  for  internal  ablution.  The  water  is  taken  up  in 
the  hallowed  palm  of  the  right  hand  or  poured  from  a  spoon 
into  the  palm,  and  is  supposed  to  cleanse  body  and  soul  in 
its  downward  course.  This  is  done  two  or  three  times  at 
the  commencement  of  the  Morning  Sandhya  ^  During  the 
process  of  sipping,  the  twenty-four  principal  names  of  the  god 
Vishnu  are  invoked,  thus  :  '  Glory  to  Kesava,  to  Narayana,  to 
Madhava,  to  Govinda,  to  Vishnu,'  etc. 

The  second  act  is  called  the  Pranayama,  '  exercise  or 
regulation  of  the  breath.'  This  includes  three  distinct 
operations : — 

I.  Recaka ;  which  consists  in  first  pressing  in  the  right 
nostril  with  the  thumb  and  expelling  the  breath  through  the 
left,  and  then  pressing  in  the  left  nostril  and  expelling  the 
breath  through  the  right.  2  Puraka ;  which  consists  in  first 
pressing  in  the  right  nostril  with  the  fore-finger  and  drawing 
in  the  breath  through  the  left,  and  then  pressing  in  the  left 
nostril  and  drawing  in  the  breath  through  the  right. 
3.  Kumbhaka ;  which  consists  in  pressing  in  both  nostrils 
with  the  finger  and  thumb,  and  holding  in  the  breath  for 
as  long  an  interval  as  possible. 

These  preliminary  acts,  which  ought  to  be  concluded  before 
the  rising  of  the  sun,  are  thought  to  be  useful  in  fixing  the 
mind,  concentrating  the  thoughts,  and  bringing  the  worshipper 
into  a  proper  attitude  of  attention.  He  is  now  in  a  position 
to  begin  the  recitation  of  his  prayers.  They  must  be  intro- 
duced by  the  solemn  utterance  of  the  monosyllable  Om 
(called  Pranava),  the  sound  being  prolated  to  the  length  of 
three  vowels. 

This  most  sacred  of  all  Hindu  utterances,  made  up  of  the 
three  letters  A,  U,  M,  and  symbolical  of  the  threefold  mani- 
festation of  the  one  Supreme  Being  in   the  gods  Brahma, 


^  The  direction  in  one  manual  is  d%iir  dcamya,  but  generally  there  are 
three  sippings,  as  directed  by  Manu  II.  60. 


The  Morning  Sa)idhya  Service.  403 

Vishnu,  and  Siva,  is  constantly  repeated  during  the  Sandhya 
service. 

Manu  describes  it  as  a  monosyllable,  imperishable  and 
eternal  as  the  Supreme  Being  himself.  After  Om  comes  the 
utterance  of  the  names  of  the  three  worlds,  Earth  (BhCir), 
Atmosphere  (Bhuvar),  Heaven  (Svar),  to  which  are  often 
added  the  four  higher  heavens,  Mahar,  Janar,  Tapar,  and 
Satyah. 

The  utterance  of  these  seven  names — called  the  seven 
Vyahritis — preceded  in  each  case  by  the  syllable  Om  is  an  act 
of  homage  to  all  the  beings  inhabiting  the  seven  worlds.  It 
is  supposed  to  induce  purity  of  thought  and  to  prepare  the 
worshipper  for  offering  up  his  first  prayer.  Turning  towards 
the  Eastern  sky  he  repeats  the  Giiyatrl  or  SiivitrT  (from 
Rig-veda  III.  62.  10):  'Let  us  meditate  on  that  excellent 
glory  of  the  divine  Vivifier,  may  he  enlighten  our  under- 
standings.' 

This  prayer  is,  as  we  have  seen,  the  most  sacred  of  all 
Vedic  utterances,  and  like  the  Lord's  Prayer  among  Christians, 
or  like  the  Fatihah  or  opening  chapter  of  the  Kuran  among 
Muhammadans,  must  always  among  Hindus  take  precedence 
of  all  other  forms  of  supplication. 

The  next  division  of  the  ceremonial  is  called  Marjana, 
'  sprinkling.'  It  is  a  kind  of  self-baptism  performed  by  the 
worshipper  himself  by  sprinkling  water  on  the  head  while  the 
first  three  verses  of  Rig-veda  X.  9  are  recited.  These  may 
be  thus  paraphrased  : — 

O  Waters,  give  us  health,  bestow  on  us 
Vigour  and  strength,  so  sliall  I  see  enjoyment. 
Rain  down  your  dewy  treasures  o'er  our  path. 
Like  loving  mothers,  pour  on  us  your  blessing, 
Make  us  partakers  of  your  sacred  essence. 
We  come  to  you  for  cleansing  from  all  guilt, 
Cause  us  to  be  productive,  make  us  prosper. 

This  is  followed  by  another  remarkable  prayer  from  the 
Taittirlya  Aranyaka  (X.  25) : — 

D  d  2 


404  The  Mo7'ning  Sandhya  Service. 

May  Sun  and  Anger  \  may  the  lords  of  anger 
Preserve  me  from  my  sins  of  pride  and  passion. 
Whate'er  the  nightly  sins  of  thought,  word,  deed, 
Wrought  by  my  mind,  my  speech,  my  hands,  my  feet, 
Wrought  through  my  appetite  and  sensual  organs, 
May  the  departing  Night  remove  them  all  ! 
In  thy  immortal  light,  O  radiant  Sun, 
I  offer  up  myself  and  this  my  guilt. 

Then  follows  a  second  performance  of  Marjana, or  'sprinkling,' 
and  a  repetition  of  all  the  nine  verses  of  the  Rig-vcda  hymn  of 
which  the  first  three  verses  had  been  previously  recited. 

The  next  act  is  the  repetition  of  a  well-known  hymn  of  the 
Rig-veda  (X.  190)  called  Agha-marshana,  'sin-annihilating,' 
supposed  to  have  an  all-powerful  effect  in  removing  sin. 
This  hymn  contains  a  curious  summary  of  the  supposed 
process  of  creation,  which  may  be  thus  paraphrased  : — 

From  glowing  heat  sprang  all  existing  things, 
Yea,  all  the  order  of  this  universe  (Rita). 
Thence  also  Night  and  heaving  Ocean  sprang  ; 
And  next  to  heaving  Ocean  rose  the  Year, 
Dividing  day  from  night.     All  mortal  men 
Who  close  the  eyelid  are  his  subjects,  he 
The  great  Disposer  made  in  due  succession 
Sun,  moon,  and  sky,  earth,  middle  air,  and  heaven. 

Manu  (XI.  259)  affirms  that  this  short  hymn  repeated 
thrice  releases  from  the  most  heinous  sins. 

All  the  ceremonial  up  to  this  point  is  supposed  to  precede 
the  actual  appearance  of  the  Sun  above  the  horizon.  The 
worshipper  now  prepares  to  render  homage  to  the  rising 
luminary  by  what  is  called  Arghya  or  Arghya-dana.  At 
other  times  this  is  the  general  name  for  a  respectful  offering 
of  water  in  a  boat-shaped  vessel,  called  Argha,  to  a  Brahman 
or  guest  of  any  kind.  In  the  Sandhya  it  is  an  act  of  homage 
to  the  Sun,  by  offering  water,  or  throwing  it  into  the  air, 
sometimes  from   a  hollow  vessel,  but  oftencr  from  the  two 


^  Anger  personified  =  Manyu  (Say.  =  Krodhabhimani  devah) ;  the  god 
or  gods  who  help  a  man  to  restrain  his  anger. 


The  Morning  Sandhya  Service.  405 

open  hands  hollowed  and  joined  together  \  The  offerer, 
standing  in  the  water,  throws  a  handful  of  it  upwards  towards 
the  Sun  three  times,  each  time  reciting  the  Gayatrl  prayer. 
The  more  he  scatters  the  water  in  throwing  it  the  better. 

The  next  division  of  the  service  is  called  Kara-nyasa,  or 
'imposition  of  fingers.'  Its  peculiar  ritual  is  taught  in  the 
more  modern  religious  works  called  Tantras. 

Some  orthodox  Brfdimans  omit  every  kind  of  Tantrik 
ceremonial  as  not  sanctioned  by  the  Veda,  but  with  the 
majority  of  Hindus  it  is  all  important.  To  understand  the 
Kara-nyasa  we  must  bear  in  mind  that  the  five  fingers  and 
the  palm  of  the  hand  are  consecrated  to  various  forms  of 
Vishnu,  and  that  different  gods  are  supposed  to  reside  in 
different  parts  of  the  body,  the  Supreme  Being  occupying 
the  top  of  the  head  ^.  Hence  the  act  of  placing  the  fingers 
or  hand  reverentially  on  the  several  organs  is  supposed 
to  gratify  and  do  honour  to  the  deities  whose  essences 
pervade  these  organs,  and  to  be  completely  efficacious  in 
removing  sin. 

The  tip  of  the  thumb  is  held  to  be  occupied  by  Govinda, 
the  forefinger  by  Mahldhara,  the  middle  finger  by  Hrishikcsa, 
the  next  finger  (called  the  nameless  finger)  by  Trivikrama,  the 
little  finger  by  Vishnu,  the  palm  of  the  hand  by  Madhava — 
all  being  different  forms  of  the  same  god  Vishnu. 

The  worshipper  then  commences  the  Nyasa  ceremonial 
by  saying :  '  Homage  to  the  two  thumbs,  to  the  two  fore- 
fingers, to  the  two  middle  fingers,  to  the  two  nameless  fingers 
(i.e.  the  ring-fingers),  to  the  two  little  fingers,  to  the  two  palms 
and  the  two  backs  of  the  hands.' 

^  The  sacred  thread  (yajnopavlta),  always  worn  as  a  type  of  regener- 
ation, and  necessary  to  the  validity  of  every  religious  act  (p.  361),  is  often 
at  the  same  time  put  round  the  two  thumbs. 

'•*  The  right  ear  is  a  peculiarly  sacred  spot  with  Tantrikas.  Fire, 
water,  sun,  and  moon  all  reside  in  the  right  ear.  Some  think  it  is  for  this 
reason  that  the  sacred  thread,  which  is  supposed  to  be  polluted  by  the 
functions  of  nature,  is  hung,  when  they  arc  performed,  over  the  right  car. 


4o6  The  Mojniing  Sandhya  Service. 

Then  follows  another  division  of  the  Nyasa  ceremonial 
called  Indriya-sparsa,  or  the  act  of  touching  different  parts 
of  the  body,  such  as  the  breast,  eyes,  ears,  navel,  throat,  and 
head,  with  the  fingers.     (Compare  Manu  II.  60.) 

Next  comes  the  regular  Gayatri-japa,  or  repeated  muttering 
of  the  Gayatrl-prayer. 

Before  beginning  this  repetition,  those  who  follow  the 
Tantrik  system  go  through  the  process  of  making  various 
mystical  figures  called  Mudras,  twenty-four  in  number,  by 
twisting,  interlacing,  or  intertwining  the  fingers  and  hands 
together.  Each  of  these  figures,  according  to  its  name, 
bears  some  fanciful  resemblance  to  animals  or  objects  of 
various  kinds,  as,  for  example,  to  a  fish,  tortoise,  boar,  lion 
(these  being  forms  in  which  the  god  Vishnu  became  in- 
carnate), or  to  a  cart,  noose,  knot,  garland ;  the  efficacy 
attributed  to  these  peculiar  intertwinings  and  twistings  of 
the  hands  and  fingers  being  enormous. 

The  correct  number  of  repetitions  is  108,  and  to  insure 
accuracy  of  enumeration  a  rosary  of  108  beads  made  of  TulasI 
wood  is  generally  used,  the  hand  being  carefully  concealed  in 
a  red  bag  (called  Go-mukhl)  or  under  a  cloth. 

The  next  division  of  the  service  is  called  Upasthana  (or 
Mitropasthana),  because  the  worshipper  abandons  his  sitting 
posture,  stands  erect  with  his  face  towards  the  rising  Sun,  and 
invokes  that  luminary  under  the  name  of  Mitra.  The  prayer 
he  now  repeats  is  Rig-veda  III.  59,  of  which  the  first  verse  is 
to  the  following  effect : — 

Mitra,  raising  his  voice,  calls  men  to  activity. 
Mitra  sustains  the  earth  and  the  sky. 
Mitra  with  unwinking  eye  beholds  all  creatures. 
Offer  to  Mitra  the  oblation  of  butter. 

The  use  of  this  hymn  in  the  morning  service  of  every 
Hindu  is  an  interesting  fact  in  its  connection  with  the  iden- 
tification of  the  Indian  Mitra  with  the  Zoroastrian  god 
Mithra,  mentioned  by  Herodotus,  and  with  the  same  Mithra 


The  Morning  Sandhya  Scrvifc.  407 

of  the  Avesta.  At  the  end  the  worshipper  invokes  the 
personified  Dawns  in  the  words  of  Rig-vcda  IV.  ;;i.  11  : 
'  Mail  brilHant  Dawns,  daughters  of  Heaven,  I  invoke  you, 
bearing  (or  having)  the  obkition  as  a  sign  (of  my  devotion). 
<  May  we  be  honoured  among  men,  may  heaven  and  the  divine 
earth  effect  that  (for  us).' 

The  service  now  draws  to  a  close.  The  last  act  but  one  is 
a  recitation  of  the  family  pedigree  (gotroc'eara) ;  for  every 
high-caste  man  is  supposed  to  be  under  the  religious  obli- 
gation of  preserving  the  memory  of  his  ancestors,  and  main- 
taining the  line  of  his  family  descent  unbroken.  Not  only, 
therefore,  does  he  worship  his  departed  forefathers  with 
offerings  and  prayers  at  the  Sraddha  services,  but  the  reci- 
tation of  his  own  genealogy  forms  an  important  part  of  the 
daily  Sandhya  ceremonial.  For  example,  the  worshipper 
says : — 

'  I  belong  to  a  particular  Gotra  (or  tribe  of  Brahmans)  ;  I 
have  three  ancestors— Arigirasa,  Sainya,  and  Gargya ;  I  am 
a  student  of  the  Asvalayana  SQtra,  and  follow  the  Sakala- 
sakha  of  the  Rig-veda.' 

The  ceremonial  concludes  with  a  general  hymn  of  praise, 
and  an  acknowledgment  that  the  one  Supreme  Being  is  the 
real  object  of  adoration  throughout  the  whole  service  :  '  Glory 
to  the  world  of  Brahma,  to  the  world  of  Rudra,  to  the  world 
of  Vishnu.  May  the  One  Supreme  Lord  of  the  Universe  be 
pleased  with  this  my  morning  service.' 

The  last  act,  like  the  first,  is  an  internal  purification  of  the 
body  by  aeamana,  or  sipping  of  water. 

I  pass  over  the  midday  Sandhya  (madhyahna-sandhya),  as 
now  very  rarely  performed. 

The  evening  Sandhya  service  (Sayani-sandhya)  is  like  the 
morning,  except  that  the  Upasthana  prayer  consists  of  ten 
verses  of  Rig-veda  I.  25,  which  may  be  freely  rendered 
thus  : — 

I.  As  often  as,  O  Varuua,  we  infringe  thy  law,  like  other  men,  every 


4o8  Brahma-yajha  Se7'vice. 

day,  2.  So  often  deliver  us  not  over  to  death,  nor  to  the  blows  of  the 
angry,  nor  to  the  wrath  of  the  enraged.  3.  As  a  charioteer  his  tethered 
steed,  so  do  we  set  free  thy  thoughts  by  our  hymns,  O  Varuna,  to  turn 
towards  us  graciously.  4.  My  wishes  fly  forth  towards  thee,  as  birds 
to  their  nest,  that  I  may  receive  thy  blessing  (vasyas  may  mean  '  excel- 
lent wealth ').  5.  When  shall  we  induce  the  far-seeing  ruler  (or  leader) 
Varuna,  glorious  in  his  sovereignty,  to  be  propitious  to  us.  6.  Partake 
together  (O  Mitra  and  Varuna)  of  the  very  same  oblation,  being  both 
of  you  propitious  to  us  ;  depart  not  from  those  who  present  offerings 
and  remain  true  to  their  vows.  7.  He  (Varuna)  who  knows  the  path 
of  the  birds  flying  through  the  air,  he  abiding  in  the  ocean  knows  also 
the  ships.  8.  He  the  maintainer  of  law  (and  order)  knows  the  twelve 
months  with  their  offspring  ;  he  knows  also  the  month  which  is  born 
afterwards  (i.e.  the  thirteenth  or  additional  month  of  the  Hindu  year). 
9.  He  knows  the  path  of  the  wind,  the  far-reaching,  lofty,  mighty  (wind), 
and  those  (Maruts)  who  are  enthroned  above  it.  10.  Varuna,  the 
maintainer  of  law  (and  order),  sits  in  his  palace  to  exercise  universal 
sovereignty,  doing  good  acts,  the  almighty  one. 

We  must  now  advert  to  the  supplementary  ceremonial 
observances  which  are  necessary  to  the  completion  of  the 
morning  Sandhya. 

The  first  act  is  Brahma-yajna,  or  worship  of  the  Supreme 
Being  as  represented  in  the  sacred  canon  of  inspired  books. 
And  here  mark  that  the  Sandhya  service  is  itself  regarded 
as  a  part  of  Brahma-yajna.  Every  portion  of  it  is  held  to 
be  for  the  sake  of  pleasing  the  Supreme  Being  (Brahma), 
but  the  use  of  the  term  Brahma-yajna  is  more  usually  re- 
stricted to  the  Brahma-yajna  par  excellence ;  that  is,  to  the 
special  worship  of  Brahma  as  identified  with  the  Veda. 

How  then  is  this  special  Brahma-yajria  to  be  performed? 
We  must  remember  that  in  Hinduism  every  religious  idea, 
including  that  of  revelation,  is  exaggerated. 

Instead  of  sixty-six  Books  to  which  our  own  Sacred  Scrip- 
tures extend,  the  Hindu  scriptures  consist  of  a  far  larger 
number  of  works,  all  of  which  are  accepted  as  either  directly 
revealed  or  founded  on  revelation.  Even  works  on  pronun- 
ciation, etymology,  and  grammar  are  included  in  the  list  as 
part  and  parcel  of  the  sacred  cation. 

How,  then,  is  this  mass  of  sacred  literature  to  be  dealt 


Tarpaiia  Ccrcvwny.  409 

Avith  by  those  religious  Brahmans  who  wish  to  fulfil  the  duty 
of  repeating  portions  of  it  daily  ? 

It  cannot  of  course  be  affirmed  of  any  Hindu,  however 
pious,  that  he  reads  his  own  Bible,  as  a  Christian  does  his, 
much  less  studies  it.  We  have  seen  how  portions  of  the  first 
three  Vedas  are  repeated  at  the  daily  Sandhya  prayers.  Por- 
tions also  of  the  Maha-bharata  (such  as  the  Bhagavad-gTla)  and 
of  the  Puranas  (for  example  the  Bhagavata  and  Markandeya 
Purana)  are  occasionally  read  and  recited  at  other  times.  But 
the  duty  of  paying  homage  to  Brahma  by  repeating  the  words 
of  divine  revelation  is  held  to  be  sufficiently  fulfilled  by  the 
daily  exercise  of  repeating  the  first  few  words  of  all  the  prin- 
cipal books,  except  the  first  hymn  of  the  Rig-veda,  which  is 
recited  throughout.  Then  comes  the  first  verse  of  the  second 
hymn.  These  Vedic  texts  may  be  recited  according  to  any 
one  or  more  of  the  five  different  Piithas,  or  modes  of  recitation, 
called  Sanihita,  Pada,  Krama,  Jata,  and  Ghana — wonderful 
devices  for  securing  the  accuracy  of  the  Vedic  text.  Then 
come  the  first  words  of  the  Aitareya  Brfdimana  (Agnir  vai 
devanfim  avamo)  and  of  each  of  the  five  books  of  the  Aita- 
reya Aranyaka.  Then  the  first  words  of  the  Yajur-veda ;  of 
the  Sama-veda  ;  of  the  Athai-va-veda  ;  of  the  Nirukta  ;  of  the 
Chandas  (Prosody);  of  the  Nighantu  ;  of  the  Jyotisha  ;  of  the 
Sikshii ;  of  Panini's  grammar.  Then  certain  passages  from  the 
Atharva-veda ;  then  the  first  words  of  Yajnavalkya's  law-book, 
of  the  ]\Iaha-bharata,  and  of  the  philosophical  Sutras,  etc. 

The  Brahma-yajna  service  is  followed  by  the  Tarpana  cere- 
mony, which  is  properly  a  triple  act,  consisting  in  offerings  of 
water  for  refreshment  (tarpana)  to  the  gods,  sages,  and  fathers. 
It  is  accordingly  divided  into  three  parts. 

In  the  first  part,  called  Deva-tarpana, '  refreshing  of  the  gods,' 
the  sacred  thread  is  worn  over  the  left  shoulder  and  under  the 
right  arm,  the  worshipper  being  then  called  UpavTtl. 

Water  is  taken  up  in  the  right  hand  and  poured  out  over 
the  straightened  fingers. 


4 TO  Pahcdyatana  Cei'emony. 

In  the  second  part  of  the  Tarpana  service,  called  Rishi- 
tarpana,  '  refreshing  of  the  sages/  the  sacred  thread  is  worn 
round  the  neck  like  a  necklace,  the  worshipper  being  then 
called  Nivltl. 

The  water  is  then  offered  so  as  to  flow  over  the  side  of  the 
palm  between  the  root  of  the  thumb  and  fore-finger,  the  finger 
being  bent  inwards^. 

The  worshipper  now  changes  the  position  of  his  sacred 
thread,  and  placing  it  over  his  right  shoulder  and  under  his 
left  arm  (being  then  called  Praclnaviti)  makes  offerings  of 
water  to  the  Ac'aryas,  or  inspired  religious  teachers.  This 
is  called  Ac'arya-tarpana,  and  is  regarded  as  supplementary 
to  the  Rishi-tarpana  and  not  as  a  distinct  division  of  the 
service. 

The  third  division  of  the  Tarpana  ceremony  is  called  Pitri- 
tarpana,  '  refreshing  of  the  fathers  or  departed  progenitors.' 

The  thread  is  worn  over  the  right  shoulder  as  in  Ac'arya- 
tarpana,  but  the  water  is  poured  out  over  the  side  of  the  palm 
opposite  to  the  root  of  the  thumb.  The  words  uttered  are, 
'  Let  the  fathers  be  refreshed  ;  let  this  water  containing  tila 
(sesamum  seeds)  be  intended  for  all  who  inhabit  the  seven 
worlds  as  far  as  the  abode  of  Brahma  (the  seventh  world), 
though  they  exceed  many  millions  of  families.  Let  the  water 
consecrated  by  my  sacred  thread  be  accepted  by  those  mem- 
bers of  our  family  who  have  died  without  any  sons.' 

This  concludes  the  series  of  Sandhya,  Brahma-yajna,  and 
Tarpana  services. 


Pancayatana  Ceremony, 

At  the  conclusion  of  the  Tarpana  ceremony  the  worshipper 
ought  to  re-enter  his  house  and  perform  the  Homa,  or  offering 

^  The  part  of  the  hand  between  the  thumb  and  the  fore-finger  is  called 
pitrya,  and  is  sacred  to  the  Pitris.    (Compare  Manu  II.  51.) 


Pahcayatana  Ceremony.  411 

of  oblations  to  the  gods  through  fire,  described  in  a  previous 
chapter  (p.  366). 

In  Manu's  time  the  worship  of  the  gods  (deva  or  devatfi) 
througli  the  Homa  was  regarded  as  one  of  the  five  Maha- 
yajTias,  or  chief  devotional  acts,  the  other  four  being  (i) 
homage  to  the  Supreme  Spirit  and  to  that  Spirit  present  in 
the  Veda,  performed  by  the  Brahma-yajna  service  ;  (2)  homage 
to  the  Pitris,  or  deceased  progenitors,  performed  by  the 
Tarpana  and  Sraddha  ceremonies  ;  (3)  homage  to  all  beings 
(bhuta),  including  animals,  performed  by  offerings  of  food 
called  bali  ;  (4)  homage  to  men,  performed  by  hospitality  to 
guests  and  almsgiving  to  beggars.  Of  these  five  acts  the  wor- 
ship of  the  gods — deva-yajiia  or  dcva-puja — was  formerly  the 
simplest.  It  was  generally  sufficiently  performed  by  putting 
oblations  of  rice  or  clarified  butter  in  fire.  In  the  present 
day,  as  already  stated,  no  one,  except  the  most  orthodox 
Brahmans,  thinks  it  necessary  to  maintain  a  sacred  fire,  and 
the  old  fire  ritual  is  gradually  dying  out. 

Other  forms  of  worshipping  the  gods  are,  however,  sub- 
stituted. In  nearly  every  modern  house  there  is  a  room 
containing  a  sanctuary,  called  Mandira.  Here  the  religious 
service  called  Deva-puja  is  generally  performed  by  pious 
householders,  or  by  some  member  of  the  family  deputed  to 
represent  the  others  every  morning. 

It  is,  we  know,  an  essential  part  of  the  theory  of  Brfdiman- 
ism  (p.  50)  that  all  gods  like  Brahma,  Vishnu,  and  Siva,  who 
are  manifestations  of  the  invisible  and  formless  Brahma,  should 
be  worshipped  through  visible  forms.  In  the  Deva-puja, 
therefore,  homage  is  paid  to  these  deities  through  images,  or 
more  commonly,  in  Central  and  Southern  India  and  the 
Maratha  country,  through  the  worship  of  five  stones  or 
s}mbols  which  are  believed  to  be  permeated  by  the  essences 
of  the  five  chief  deities. 

The  room  dedicated  to  their  worship  need  not  be  on  the 
ground-floor,  like  the  Homa-sala.    The  five  stones  (as  already 


412  Pahcayatana  Ceremony, 

pointed  out,  pp.  69,  392)  are — i.  the  black  stone \  represent- 
ing Vishnu  ;  2.  the  white  stone  2,  representing  Siva's  essence  ; 

3.  the  red  stone,  representing  Ganesa  ;  4.  the  small  piece  of 
metallic  ore,  representing  the  wife  of  Siva  ;  5.  the  piece  of 
crystal,  representing  the  Sun.  The  first  two  stones— Sala- 
grama  and  Bana-Hnga — are  regarded  as  far  more  sacred  than 
manufactured  idols,  for  such  idols  must  be  consecrated, 
whereas  these  stones  are  occupied  by  Vishnu  and  Siva 
without  any  consecration  whatever. 

All  five  symbols  are  placed  on  a  round  open  metal  dish, 
called  Paiicayatana,  and  are  arranged  in  five  different  methods, 
according  to  the  preference  given  to  any  one  of  the  five 
deities  at  the  time  of  worship.     These  five  methods  are  : — 

I.  Vishnu  in  the  middle;  Siva  N.  E.  (i.e.  towards  the  north-east 
quarter);  Ganesa  S.E.;  Surya  S.W. ;  Devi  N.W.  2.  Siva  in  the  mid- 
dle; Vishnu  N.W.;  Surya  S.  E. ;  Ganesa  S.W. ;  Devi  N.W.  3.  Surya 
in  the  middle;  Siva  N.E. ;    Ganesa  S.  E.  ;    Vishnu  S.W.;    Devi  N.W. 

4.  Devi  in  the  middle  ;  Vishnu  N.  E.  ;  Siva  S.  E.  ;  Ganesa  S.W. ;  Surya 
N.W.  5.  Ganesa  in  the  middle  ;  Vishnu  N.  E.  ;  Siva  S.  E.  ;  Surya  S.W. ; 
Devi  N.W. 

Then,  again,  on  one  side  of  the  Pancayatana  is  a  small  bell, 
and  on  the  other  side  a  conch-shell  ^,  and  near  at  hand  is  a 
water-vessel  called  Kalasa  or  Abhisheka-patra,  with  a  small 
hole  in  the  bottom  of  it,  through  which  the  water  used  for 
sprinkling  the  stones  passes.  These  three  objects  are  also 
held  sacred  and  receive  their  share  of  worship. 

I  should  state  that  near  the  metal  receptacle  containing  the 
five  sacred  stones  is  placed  another  metal  plate  on  which  are 


^  Near  the  black  Sala-grama  stone  there  is  often  placed  a  kind  of  fossil 
with  circular  markings,  also  sacred  to  Vishnu  and  symbolizing  his  cakra. 
The  Muhammadans  also  worship  a  kind  of  black  stone  fixed  in  the  Ka'ba. 
This  stone-worship  is  doubtless  a  remnant  of  fetishism  which  has  pre- 
vailed in  all  countries. 

'^  It  is  curious  that  Vishnu  should  be  represented  as  of  a  black  colour 
and  Siva  as  white,  when  the  former  is  held  to  be  connected  with  the 
Sattva-guna  and  the  latter  with  the  Tamo-guna  (see  p.  45). 

^  The  conch-shcll  is  specially  sacred  to  Vishnu  (see  p.  103). 


Pahcayalaiia  Ca'CDwny.  413 

arranged  the  Tulasi  leaves  for  Vishnu  and  the  Bilva  leaves  for 
Siva,  besides  offerings  of  flowers,  perfumes,  etc. 

The  worship  of  the  five  deities  thus  represented  is  per- 
formed by  sixteen  acts  of  homage  (upacara),  one  for  each  of 
the  sixteen  verses  of  the  Purusha-sukta,  or  ninetieth  hymn  of 
the  tenth  Mandala  of  the  Rig-veda,  and  the  ceremony  is  some- 
times called  Paudayatana-puja,  from  the  receptacle  (ayatana) 
in  which  the  five  symbols  are  placed. 

Before  commencing  the  service  the  worshipper  goes  through 
the  usual  sippings  of  water  (acamana)  and  suppressions  of  the 
breath  before  described  (p.  402).  Then  after  repeating  certain 
preliminary  prayers  he  invokes  the  god  Ganesa,  employing  a 
well-known  text  from  the  Rig-veda  (II.  23):  '  Om.  We 
invoke  thee  who  art  lord  of  the  hosts  of  hosts  (Ganapatim 
gananam),  the  sage  of  sages,  of  most  exalted  fame,  the  most 
excellent  king  of  Vedic  mantras,  O  Lord  of  prayer  ^,  hear  us 
with  favour,  and  enter  our  dwelling  to  aid  us  (against  the 
demons  of  obstruction).' 

This  invocation  is  followed  by  Nyasa,  or  the  reverential 
touching  of  various  parts  of  the  body,  in  connection  with 
the  recitation  of  a  few  words  at  the  beginning  and  middle 
of  each  of  the  last  six  verses  of  the  Purusha-sukta  (X.  90) 
of  the  Rig-veda. 

The  next  act  is  adoration  of  the  water-vessel  (kalasa), 
thus : — 

'  In  the  mouth  of  the  water-vessel  abideth  Vishnu,  in  its 
neck  is  Rudra,  in  its  lower  part  is  Brahma,  while  the  whole 
company  of  the  Mothers  (matris)  are  congregated  in  its 
middle  part.  O  Ganges,  Yamuna,  Godavarl,  SarasvatT,  Nar- 
mada,  Sindhu,  and  Kaverl,  be  present  in  this  water.' 

Next  succeeds  the  worship  of  the  conch-shell,  thus : — 

^  Brahman  is  here  used  for  the  hymns,  or  rather  mantras,  of  the  Veda 
which  in  later  times  were  used  as  spells  to  counteract  the  malice  of 
demons.  Ganesa  in  his  power  over  the  troops  of  demons  is  thus  identified 
with  the  Vedic  Brahmanas-pati,  or  lord  of  prayer. 


414  Paiicdyatana  Ceremony. 

*  O  conch-shell  (Pancajanya,  see  p.  103),  thou  wast  produced 
in  the  sea,  and  art  held  by  Vishnu  in  his  hand ;  thou  art 
worshipped  by  all  the  gods.     Receive  my  homage.' 

Then  follows  adoration  of  the  bell,  thus  : — 

'  O  bell,  make  a  sound  for  the  approach  of  the  gods,  and 
for  the  departure  of  the  demons.  Homage  to  the  goddess 
Ghanta  (bell).  I  offer  perfumes,  grains  of  rice,  and  flowers, 
in  token  of  rendering  all  due  homage  to  the  bell.' 

Then  after  intertwining  his  fingers  so  as  to  make  the 
mystical  figure  called  Ghanta-mudra,  the  worshipper  must 
ring  the  bell.  Next,  after  fixing  his  thoughts,  he  says  a 
prayer  to  Vishnu,  Siva,  the  son  of  Siva  (Ganapati),  the 
Supreme  Being  (Narayana)  in  the  centre  of  the  Sun's  orb, 
and  the  goddess  Devi.  The  worshipper  now  commences 
the  sixteen  acts  of  homage  or  offerings  (upacara),  each  ac- 
companied with  the  uttering  of  one  of  the  sixteen  verses  of 
the  Purusha  hymn  of  the  Rig-veda  (X.  90),  a  translation  of 
which  I  here  subjoin  : — 

I.  Purusha  has  thousands  of  heads  (thousands  of  arms,  A.V.),  thousands 
of  eyes,  and  thousands  of  feet.  On  every  side  enveloping  the  earth,  he 
transcended  this  mere  space  of  ten  fingers^.  2.  Purusha  himself  is  this 
whole  (universe),  whatever  has  been,  and  whatever  shall  be.  He  is  also 
the  lord  of  immortality,  since  through  food  he  expands.  3.  Such  is  his 
greatness  ;  and  Purusha  is  superior  to  this.  All  existing  things  are  a 
quarter  of  him,  and  that  which  is  immortal  in  the  sky  is  three  quarters  of 
him.  4.  With  three  quarters  Purusha  mounted  upwards.  A  quarter  of 
him  again  was  produced  here  below.  He  then  became  diffused  every- 
where among  things  animate  and  inanimate.  5.  From  him  Viraj  was 
born,  and  from  Viraj,  Purusha.  As  soon  as  born  he  extended  beyond 
the  earth,  both  behind  and  before.  6.  When  the  gods  offered  up  Purusha 
as  a  sacrifice,  the  spring  was  its  clarified  butter,  summer  its  fuel,  and 
autumn  the  (accompanying)  oblation.  7.  This  victim,  Purusha  born  in 
the  beginning,  they  consecrated  on  the  sacrificial  grass  ;  with  him  as 
their  offering,  the  gods,  Sadhyas,  and  Rishis  sacrificed.  8.  From  that 
universal  oblation  were  produced  curds  and  clarified  butter.  He  (Purusha) 
formed  the  animals  which  are  subject  to  the  power  of  the  air  (vayavya), 

^  The  world  is  called  Dasaiigula,  a  mere  span  of  ten  fingers  compared 
with  his  infinite  essence.  I  have  chiefly  followed  Dr.  John  Muir's  transla- 
tion, but  not  throughout  (see  Texts,  p.  368).     A.V.  is  for  Atharva-veda. 


Paiicayalana   Ceremony.  415 

both  wild  and  tame.  9.  From  that  universal  sacrifice  spran;]j  the  hymns 
called  Rid'  and  Saman,  the  metres,  and  the  Yajush.  10.  From  it  were 
produced  horses,  and  ail  animals  with  two  rows  of  teeth,  cows,  goats,  and 
sheep.  II.  When  they  divided  Purusha,  into  how  many  parts  did  they 
distribute  him  1  What  was  his  mouth  ?  What  were  his  arms  ?  What 
were  called  his  thighs  and  feet?  12.  The  Brahman  was  his  mouth  ;  the 
Rajanya  became  his  arms  ;  the  Vaisya  was  his  thighs  ;  the  Sudra  sprang 
from  his  feet.  13.  The  moon  was  produced  from  his  soul  ;  the  sun  from 
his  eye  ;  Indra  and  Agni  from  his  mouth  ;  the  Vayu  from  his  breath. 
14.  From  his  navel  came  the  atmosphere  ;  from  his  head  arose  the  sky; 
from  his  feet  came  the  earth  ;  from  his  ear  the  four  quarters  ;  so  they 
formed  the  worlds.  15.  When  the  gods,  in  performing  their  sacrifice, 
bound  Purusha  as  a  victim,  there  were  seven  pieces  of  wood  laid  for  him 
round  the  fire,  and  thrice  seven  pieces  of  fuel  employed.  16.  With  sacri- 
fice the  gods  worshipped  the  Sacrifice.  These  were  the  primeval  rites. 
These  great  beings  attained  to  the  heaven  where  the  gods,  the  ancient 
Sadhyas,  reside. 

The  sixteen  acts  of  homage  or  offerings  are — 

I.  Invocation  (avahana)  ;  2.  a  seat  for  sitting  down  (asana)  formed  of 
TulasI  leaves  ;  3.  foot  water  (padya)  ;  4.  respectful  oblation  (arghya)  of 
rice,  etc.  ;  5.  water  for  sipping  (acamanlya)  ;  6.  ablution  or  lustration 
(snana)  with  milk  and  clarified  butter,  honey  and  sugar  ;  7.  clothing 
(vastra)  formed  of  TulasI  leaves  ;  8.  upper  clothing  or  ornaments  (upa- 
vastra)  formed  of  more  TulasI  leaves  ;  9.  perfumes  and  sandal  (gandha, 
(bandana);  10.  flowers  (pushpa)  ;  11.  incense  (dhupa)  ;  12.  illumination 
(dlpa)  ;  13.  oblation  of  food  (naivedya)  ;  14.  reverential  circumambula- 
tion  (pradakshiiul) ;  15.  flowers  with  recitation  of  texts  (mantra-pushpa) ; 
16.  final  act  of  adoration  (namaskara). 

With  each  act  of  homage  one  of  the  sixteen  verses  of  the 
Purusha  hymn  above  translated  is  recited.  The  final  act 
of  adoration  is  as  follows  : — 

Veneration  to  the  infinite  and  eternal  Male  (Purusha),  who  has  thou- 
sands of  names,  thousands  of  forms,  thousands  of  feet,  thousands  of  eyes, 
thousands  of  heads,  thousands  of  thighs,  thousands  of  arms,  and  who  lives 
for  ten  millions  of  ages. 

O  great  god,  pardon  my  want  of  knowledge  of  the  right  way  of  wor- 
shipping thee.  Sin,  misery,  and  poverty  arc  removed  ;  happiness  and 
purity  are  obtained  by  thy  presence.  O  great  god,  I  commit  thousands 
of  faults  ever)' day  and  night  ;  forgive  me,  as  I  am  thy  servant.  There  is 
no  other  protection  but  from  thee  ;  thou  only  art  my  refuge  ;  guard  me, 
therefore,  and  defend  me  by  thy  mercy;  pardon  my  mistakes  and  defects 

^  According  to  Sayana's  introduction  to  the  Rig-veda,  this  mention  of 
the  Ric  first  proves  the  priority  of  the  Rig-veda. 


4i6  Vaisvadcva  Ceremony. 

in  syllables,  words,  and  measure  ;  O  mighty  lord,  be  propitiated.  I  offer 
flowers  with  prayers.  Let  the  five  gods,  of  whom  great  Vishnu  is  the 
first,  be  pleased  with  the  worship  I  have  made.  Let  all  this  be  offered  to 
the  Supreme  Being.  I  offer  thee  with  my  mouth,  O  Vishnu,  the  sacred 
salutation  \''ashat.  Be  pleased,  O  Sipivishta^  with  my  oblation  ;  let  my 
songs  of  praise  exalt  thee  ;  protect  us  ever  with  thy  blessings  (Rig-veda 
VII.  99.  7,  100.  7). 

Then  sipping  water  the  worshipper  says  : — 

*  I  take  into  my  body  the  holy  water  which  conies  from 
the  feet  of  Vishnu,  preventing  untimely  death  and  destroying 
all  diseases.' 

This  concludes  the  Pancayatana  ceremony  as  performed  by 
Brahmans  in  the  Maratha  country.  Doubtless  here  and  there 
local  variations  may  occur,  and  it  should  be  observed  that 
in  some  districts  where  Siva  is  especially  worshipped  a  form 
of  religious  service  called  Siva-piaja  is  substituted  for  the 
Pancayatana-puja,  and  certain  hymns  called  the  Rudra 
hymns,  from  the  Yajur-veda,  are  in  that  case  recited.  More- 
over, abbreviations  and  omissions^  are  usual  in  all  the  forms 
of  ritual  among  persons  engaged  in  secular  pursuits.  But 
a  really  strict  Brahman  omits  nothing. 

Vaisvadeva  Ceremony. 

An  orthodox  Brahman's  craving  for  religious  ceremonial 
is  not  by  any  means  satiated  by  the  tedious  round  of  forms 
he  has  gone  through  in  the  early  morning.  A  pause  of  an 
hour  or  two  brings  him  to  the  time  when  preparations  for 
another  solemn  rite  have  to  be  made.  This  is  the  ceremony 
which  ought  to  precede  the  midday  meal. 

It  should  be  stated  that  an  Indian  household  is  satisfied 
with  two  principal  daily  meals — one  about  midday,  another 
in  the  evening — but  no  pious  householder  of  high  caste  will 
sit   down   to   the   former   without    first   performing    what   is 

^  This  epithet  of  Vishnu  is  only  applicable  to  him  as  a  form  of  the  Sun 
displaying  his  rays  in  all  directions. 
'''  The  utterance  of  the  name  of  Vishnu  will  atone  for  all  omissions. 


Vaisvadcva  Ccremoyiy.  4 1  7 

called  the  Vaisvadeva  ceremony,  or  offering  to  all  the  gods 
(visve  devuh) '.  Nor  is  this  held  to  be  completed  without  the 
addition  of  another  rite,  called  Bali-harana,  which  is  practically 
nothing  more  than  the  concluding  act  of  the  Vaisvadeva'-. 

The  gods  worshipped  in  the  Vaisvadeva  are  Vedic,  and 
the  ceremony  is  therefore  from  its  antiquity  far  more  inter- 
esting than  the  Pancayatana-puja,  or  any  other  modern  form 
of  the  Deva-puja.  It  is  described  in  its  most  ancient  form 
ill  Manu  III.  '^4-93.  The  idea  involved  in  the  entire  service 
seems  to  be,  that  before  a  man  begins  eating  he  ought 
to  consecrate  and  purify  his  food  by  making  offerings  of 
small  portions  of  cooked  rice  and  other  food  to  all  the 
deities  through  whose  favour  he  is  himself  fed,  and  more 
especially  to  Fire,  who  is  the  bearer  of  the  offering  to  heaven. 
In  point  of  fact  the  whole  ceremony  resolves  itself  into  a 
form  of  homage  offered  to  the  gods  who  give  the  food,  and 
to  the  god  of  fire  without  whose  aid  this  food  could  not  be 
prepared  for  eating.  There  is  also  a  notion  that,  in  preparing 
the  food  by  cooking,  animals  may  have  been  accidentally 
destroyed,  for  which  expiation  should  be  made  before  the 
dinner  is  consumed. 

It  should  be  observed  that  the  Vaisvadeva  is  not,  like  the 
Sandhya,  incumbent  on  every  individual  separately.  It  may 
be  performed  vicariously,  like  the  Deva-puja,  through  one 
member  of  the  family  (generally  a  junior  member)  acting 
for  the  others.  In  performing  it  a  small  portable  fire- 
receptacle,  called  a  Kunda,  is  brought  into  the  room  where 

^  In  reality  only  certain  classes  of  deities  are  intended.  It  is  curious 
that  the  number  of  the  gods  is  sometimes  asserted  in  the  Rig-veda  to  be 
■^T^^  while  elsewhere  (X.  6.  3)  the  number  3306  is  given,  and  elsewhere 
(III.  9.  9)  3339.  They  are  now  commonly  said  to  amount  to  330  millions, 
but  no  authority  is  quoted  for  this  number. 

-  Some  manuals  speak  of  the  two  in  the  dual,  as  Vaisvadeva-balikar- 
mani.  They  are  described  by  Colebrooke  in  his  second  essay  on  '  The 
Religious  Ceremonies  of  the  Hindus,'  but  in  a  confused  and  imperfect 
manner. 

E  e 


41 8  Vai'svadeva  Ceremony. 

the  eatables  are  collected.  Consecrated  fire — fed  with  con- 
secrated fuel — is  placed  in  it,  sacred  grass  is  spread  around, 
and  offerings  of  rice,  etc.  are  cast  into  the  flames  for  all  the 
deities,  with  repetition  of  Vedic  texts. 

The  Bali-harana  which  follows  requires  for  its  proper  per- 
formance an  elaborate  arrangement  of  portions  of  food  in 
a  circle  ^  each  portion  being  allotted  to  a  particular  deity, 
or  class  of  superhuman  beings,  with  the  utterance  of  prescribed 
formularies. 

The  detail  of  both  Vaisvadeva  and  Bali-harana  as  given  in 
the  most  trustworthy  manuals  is  as  follows : — 

The  worshipper  begins  by  the  usual  sippings  of  water 
(acamana)  and  breath  exercises  (p.  402),  and  by  declaring  his 
intention  (sahkalpa)  of  performing  the  ceremony,  thus  : — 

'  I  will  to-day  perform  the  morning  and  evening  ^  Vaisva- 
deva with  the  cooked  food  (siddhanna)  cast  into  the  fire, 
for  the  purification  of  that  food  and  for  my  own  purification, 
and  to  make  expiation  for  the  five  destructive  domestic  im- 
plements^ (Pancasuna),  and  to  obtain  the  reward  prescribed 
by  the  Sruti,  Smriti,  and  Puranas.' 

Then  after  bringing  in  a  small  movable  fire-receptacle,  the 
service  commences  with  an  invocation  (avahana)  of  the  god 
of  fire  from  the  Rig-veda  (V.  4.  5  5  !•  72-  6),  which  may  be 
thus  translated  : — 

*  O  all-wise  god  Agni,  come  to  this  our  sacrifice  as  a  loved  domestic 
friend  and  household  guest.  Destroy  all  our  enemies,  and  procure  for  us, 
O  Agni,  the  food  (and  other  possessions)  of  those  who  bear  us  enmity.' 

'  Come,  Agni,  hither  and  sit  down  here  as  our  priest,  and  be  to  us  a 

^  A  diagram  of  the  circle  is  given  in  most  of  the  Directories,  with  the 
order  in  which  the  portions  of  food  are  to  be  arranged. 

^  The  evening  Vaisvadeva  is  never,  so  far  as  I  was  able  to  ascertain, 
performed  in  the  present  day. 

^  The  five  places,  or  domestic  implements,  through  the  use  of  which 
animals  may  be  accidentally  destroyed  in  the  process  of  preparing  food, 
are — l.  the  fire-place  ;  2.  the  slab  for  grinding  grain  and  condiments  ; 
3.  the  pots  and  pans  ;  4.  the  pestle  and  mortar ;  and  5.  the  water-pot. 
See  Manu  III.  68. 


Vaisvadcva  Ceremony.  419 

trustworthy  puide.     May  all-pervadinpf  heaven  and  earth  defend  thee  ! 
Bear  our  oblations  to  the  gods  for  their  complete  satisfaction.' 

After  these  invocations  a  covered  dish  of  uncooked  rice  is 
brought  in  and  the  cover  removed.  Then  sacred  fire  is  placed 
in  the  receptacle,  with  these  words :  Om  Bhur  bhuvah  svah, 
'I  deposit  the  fire  called  Rukmaka^  (bright  as  gold).'  Con- 
secrated fuel  is  next  put  on  and  the  fire  fanned,  while  the 
following  well-known  and  remarkable  text  from  Rig-veda  IV. 
58.  3  is  recited :  '  Four  are  his  horns,  three  are  his  feet,  two 
are  his  heads,  seven  are  his  hands.  He  the  triply-bound 
bull  roars.     The  mighty  deity  enters  mortals  ^.' 

Next  comes  a  text  from  the  Svetasvatara  Upanishad  II.  16  : 
'  This  god  (of  fire)  pervades  all  the  quarters  of  the  sky ;  he 
was  the  first-born  of  all  things ;  he  is  within  the  womb ;  he 
was  born  and  is  to  be  born  ;  he  dwells  in  all  men,  and  has 
his  countenance  in  all  directions.' 

Tl>e  collecting  together  and  spreading  of  the  consecrated 
fuel  and  sacred  Kusa  grass  employed  in  the  ceremony  are 
then  made ;  and  water  is  sprinkled  round  in  a  circle. 

Next,  the  rice  about  to  be  eaten  is  consecrated  by  the 
sprinkling  of  water  and  placed  on  the  fire.  It  is  then  taken 
off  and  deposited  between  the  worshipper  and  the  fire. 


^  Fire  is  of  various  kinds  and  has  various  names,  and  it  is  requisite  to 
name  the  particular  fire  intended  to  be  prepared. 

^  Professor  H.  H.  Wilson  gives  a  long  note  here,  showing  that  Sayana 
identifies  Agni  in  this  text  with  either  Sacrifice  or  the  Sun.  The  four 
horns  are  the  Veda  or  the  Cardinal  points,  the  three  feet  are  the  three 
daily  Sandhyas,  or  morning,  noon,  and  evening  ;  the  heads  are  either  two 
particular  ceremonies,  or  day  and  night ;  the  seven  hands  are  the  seven 
metres  or  seven  solar  rays.  The  bull  is  sacrifice,  or  the  Sun  as  the  pourer 
down  of  benefits  ;  the  triple  bond  is  Mantra,  Kalpa,  and  Brahmana,  and 
the  roaring  sound  is  the  recitation  of  the  Veda.  Patanjali  in  the  Maha- 
bhashya  (I.  l.  i)  explains  the  four  horns  to  mean  the  four  kinds  of 
words,  nouns,  verbs,  prepositions  and  particles  ;  the  three  feet  the  three 
tenses,  past,  present  and  future  ;  the  two  heads  the  eternal  and  tem- 
porary (produced)  words  ;  the  seven  hands  the  seven  case  affixes  ;  the 
triple  bond  is  composed  of  the  chest,  the  throat,  and  the  head.  The 
mighty  deity  is  speech,     (Compare  St.  John's  Gospel,  i.  I.) 

E  e  2 


420  Vaisvadeva  Ceremony. 

The  next  act  is  called  Upasthana.  A  prayer  from  the 
Rig-veda  (V.  4.  9)  is  addressed  to  the  god  of  fire  under  his 
name  Jatavedas  \  thus  : — 

'  Carry  us,  O  omniscient  god  (Jatavedas),  through  all  our 
troubles  and  difficulties,  as  if  thou  wert  conveying  us  over 
a  river  by  means  of  a  boat.  O  Fire,  thou  art  glorified  by  us 
with  as  great  honour  (as  was  once  offered  thee)  by  Atri,  be 
thou  willing  (be  thou  awake  or  active)  to  become  the  pro- 
tector of  our  persons.' 

After  this  prayer  offerings  are  made  with  the  usual  reve- 
rential ejaculations,  thus :  '  Homage  to  Fire  (Agni).  I  offer 
fragrant  sandal  for  unguent  (vilepana),  I  offer  flowers  for 
worship.  I  offer  uncooked  grains  of  rice  (akshatali)  for  every 
kind  of  offering^.' 

Next,  the  worshipper,  after  purifying  his  person  and  wash- 
ing his  hands,  makes  offerings  to  all  the  gods,  throwing 
portions  of  cooked  rice  —  each  portion  about  equal  to  a 
mouthful — into  the  fire,  with  the  following  words: — 

'  Om.  Homage  to  the  Sun  (Suryaya-svaha).  This  is  offered  for  the  Sun, 
and  not  for  my  own  use  ;  homage  to  Prajapati,  to  Agni,  to  Soma  Vanas- 
pati,  to  Agni  and  Soma  together,  to  Indra  and  Agni  together,  to  Heaven 
and  Earth,  to  Dhanvantari,  to  Indra  alone,  to  all  the  gods  (Visvebhyo 
devebhyah),  to  Brahma,  to  Bhur  and  Agni,  to  Bhuvar  and  Vayu,  to  Svar 
and  Surya^,'  etc. 

The  next  act  is  the  taking  up  of  ashes  (vibhiiti-grahana) 

from  the  fire  in  a  deep-bowled  spoon  called  Darvi,  and  the 

application   of  a  small  quantity  with  the  finger  to  different 

parts  of  the  body,  with  the  following  prayer  to  Rudra  (Siva): 

'  O  Rudra,  inflict  not  harm   on  our  sons  and  grandsons,  on 

^  Jatavedas  probably  means  'knower  of  all  beings.'  The  loth  and  nth 
verses  of  this  hymn  are  also  recited  after  the  9th. 

^  That  is  as  a  substitute  for  all  other  oblations.  Practically  neither 
sandal,  perfumes,  nor  flowers  are  offered  on  ordinary  occasions,  but  only 
cooked  rice  is  put  into  the  fire  in  place  of  other  offerings. 

^  The  manuals  give  a  diagram  of  the  circle,  and  the  names  of  all  the 
gods  to  whom  portions  of  food  are  offered  on  the  ground  in  the  conclud- 
ing Bali-harana  ceremony.  The  cooked  food  appears  to  be  offered  in  fire 
to  these  same  gods  in  the  same  order. 


The  Bali-harana  Service.  42  1 

our  living  men,  on  our  cows  and  horses ;  destroy  not  our 
brave  men  in  thy  anger;  we  invoke  thee  continually,  bringing 
thee  oblations.'  (Rig-veda  I.  114.  8.) 

Then,  with  the  prayer,  '  May  I  enjoy  the  triple  life  (try- 
ayusham)  of  Jamadagni\  of  Kasyapa,  of  Agastya,  of  the 
gods  ;  may  I  altogether  live  for  a  hundred  years,'  ashes  are 
applied  to  the  forehead,  the  neck,  the  navel,  the  right  shoulder, 
the  left  shoulder,  and  the  head  respectively. 

Another  prayer  to  the  god  of  fire  concludes  the  Vaisvadeva 

portion  of  the  service,  thus  : — 

*0  bearer  of  the  oblations,  give  me  happiness,  faith,  understanding, 
fame,  wisdom,  learning,  intellect,  wealth,  strength,  long  life,  dignity,  and 
health.  I  salute  him  whose  name,  when  remembered  and  mentioned, 
makes  incomplete  religious  services  complete '".  Let  the  deity  who  par- 
takes of  the  sacrifice  and  has  the  form  of  Agni-narfiyana  be  pleased  with 
this  ceremony.  Let  it  be  regarded  as  offered  to  the  true  essence  of 
the  Supreme  Being  (Brahma).' 

The  Bali-haraiia  Service. 

But  the  Vaisvadeva  ceremony  is  not  complete  without  the 
Bali-harana,  or  offering  of  food  to  all  gods  and  all  creatures, 
including  all  kinds  of  animals  and  spirits.  This  act  is  identical 
with  Manu's  BhLita-yajna,  or  homage  to  all  creatures  (Manu 
III.  70.  81-IV.  21).  The  offering  to  all  animals  is  sometimes 
called  Kaka-bali,  because  crows  are  practically  the  chief 
devourers  of  the  offerings.  In  fact,  the  Vaisvadeva  and  Bali- 
harana  are  complementary  of  each  other,  and  are  generally 
regarded  as  one  ceremony. 

The  worshipper  begins  by  placing  small  mouthfuls  of  cooked 
rice  in  a  circle  on  the  ground  between  himself  and  the  fire- 
receptacle,  allotting  separate  portions  to  all  the  gods  to  whom 
offerings  have  already  been  made  in  the  fire,  as  well  as  to 
other  beings  outside  the  circle,  in  regular  order,  saying : — 

^  Compare  White  Yajur-veda  (Vajasaneyi-S.)  IH.  62. 

*  According  to  the  manual  I  have  followed,  a  Sruti  enjoins  that  if  any 
part  of  the  ceremony  has  been  carelessly  omitted,  it  is  held  to  be  com- 
pleted by  remembering  and  repeating  the  name  of  Vishnu. 


42  2  The  Bali-hararia.  Service. 

'  Homage  (l)  to  Surya,  (2)  to  Prajapati,  (3)  to  Agni,  (4)  to  Prajapati, 
(5)  to  Soma  with  Vanaspati,  (6)  to  Agni  and  Soma,  (7)  to  Indra  with 
Agni,  (8)  to  Heaven  and  Earth,  (9)  to  Dhanvantari\  (10)  to  Indra,  (11)  to 
all  the  gods,  (12)  to  Brahma,  (13)  to  the  waters,  (14)  to  the  plants  and 
trees,  (15)  to  the  house,  (16)  to  the  household  deities,  (17)  to  the  gods  of 
the  foundation  of  the  house.' 

Then  portions  are  placed  on  the  ground  just  outside  the 

circle  for  other  gods  and  beings  in  the  order  of  the  quarters 

of  the  compass,  beginning  with  the  East,  saying : — 

'Homage  (18)  to  Indra,  (19)  to  Indra's  attendants,  (20)  to  Yama, 
(21)  to  Yama's  attendants,  (22)  to  Varuna,  (23)  to  Varuna's  attendants, 
(24)  to  Soma,  (25)  to  Soma's  attendants,  (26)  to  Brahma,  (27)  to  Brahma's 
attendants,  (28)  to  all  the  Gods,  (29)  to  all  the  Bhutas  or  Spirits,  (30)  to 
all  the  Spirits  who  move  about  by  day,  (31)  to  all  the  Spirits  who  move 
about  by  night,  (32)  to  all  Rakshasas  and  evil  spirits,  (33)  to  the 
Pitris — the  worshipper  hanging  his  sacred  thread  over  the  right  shoulder 
and  becoming  Pracinavlti  (see  p.  410),  (34)  to  the  dog  Syama,  (35)  to  the 
dog  Sabala,  (36)  to  Sanaka"  and  the  other  Rishis  (the  worshipper  hang- 
ing his  thread  round  his  neck  like  a  necklace  and  becoming  Nivltl,  see 
p.  410). 

While  making  offerings  of  food  to  the  spirits  and  animals 

he  says : — 

'I  who  am  myself  desirous  of  being  fed,  offer  oblations  of  food  to 
those  spirits  that  move  about  day  and  night  and  delight  in  doing  mis- 
chief. Let  the  lord  of  food  grant  me  also  to  be  nourished  by  the  food 
I  am  about  to  eat.' 

While  offering  portions  of  food  outside  the  door  of  the 

house  he  says  : — 

'  Let  the  crows  that  come  from  all  the  four  quarters  of  the  sky  (presided 
over  by  Indra,  Varuna,  Vayu,  Yama,  and  Nirriti)  take  the  portions  of  rice 
placed  by  me  on  the  ground.  I  present  a  portion  to  the  two  dogs,  called 
Syama  and  Sabala  (seep.  289),  belonging  to  the  family  of Vaivasvata, 
that  they  may  protect  me  always  in  my  path  (through  this  world  and  the 
next).  I  place  portions  on  the  ground  for  dogs,  for  low-born  persons 
(dandalas)  and  outcasts,  for  all  animals  and  for  crows  (Sva-candala- 
patita-vayasebhyah  ^).' 

^  Dhanvantari  is  not  the  physician  of  the  gods  produced  at  the  churn- 
ing of  the  ocean,  but  an  ancient  deity. 

■^  Sanaka  was  one  of  the  four  sons  of  Brahma. 

'  The  Rev.  Nehemiah  Goreh  informed  me  that  he  used  to  repeat  these 
words  every  day  when  he  performed  the  Vaisvadeva  and  Bali-harana  for 
his  family. 


The  Ccranony  of  Dining.  4 


')  z 


The  householder  then  waits  at  the  door  for  a  short  interval, 
watching  for  some  guest  (atithi)  who  may  be  passing,  or  for 
some  beggar  to  whom  he  may  give  a  portion  of  food  as  alms '. 

He  then  washes  his  hands  and  feet,  sips  water,  and  re-enters 
the  house,  saying : — 

'  Let  earth,  atmosphere,  and  sky  be  favourable  to  us  and  make  us  free 
from  fear  of  danger.  Let  all  the  quarters  of  the  sky,  the  waters,  and 
the  lightnings  protect  us  from  all  harm  !  Peace,  peace,  peace !  homage 
to  \'ishnu,  homage  to  Vishnu,  homage  to  Vishnu.' 

The  Ceremony  of  D'uiing. 

After  the  due  performance  of  the  Vaisvadeva  and  Bali- 
harana  ceremonies  the  cooked  food  is  considered  fit  to  be 
consumed,  and  it  might  be  thought  that  after  so  long  a 
religious  service  the  members  of  the  householder's  family 
would  have  nothing  further  to  do  but  to  eat  their  dinner 
without  further  ceremony.  But  not  so.  The  process  of 
dining  is  itself  regarded  as  a  religious  rite,  and  must  be  con- 
ducted according  to  prescribed  forms. 

Most  of  the  manuals  in  my  possession  give  directions  for 
what  is  called  Bhojana-vidhi,  'the  ceremony  of  dining.'  In 
practice,  w^hat  generally  happens  in  the  families  of  orthodox 
Brahmans  and  other  high-caste  natives  ^  is  nearly  as  follows  : — 

The  males  of  the  family  sit  down  in  a  row  on  the  ground 
with  their  legs  folded  under  them  in  the  usual  manner. 
They  are  waited  on  by  the  wives,  daughters  "^j  and  widows  of 
the  family ;  for  no  woman  in  any  Indian  household  will 
venture  to  eat  till  the  men  have  finished.  Boiled  rice  and 
other  kinds  of  grain  or  pulse  cooked  with  condiments  and 

^  The  object  of  waiting  at  the  door  is  that  the  worshipper  may  feel  he 
has  done  his  best  to  discharge  the  duty  of  performing  the  Manushya- 
yajiia  or  Atithi-pujana,  'homage  to  men  or  guests,'  enjoined  by  Manu 
(in  Book  IIL  70). 

'  Of  course  great  variations  occur  even  among  Brahman  families,  espe- 
cially in  large  cities  where  anti-brahmanic  influences  arc  at  work. 

^  Daughters,  however,  are  often  privileged  to  eat  with  their  fathers. 


424  Grace  before  Dinner. 

sometimes  various  kinds  of  sweetmeats  are  served  up  on 
plates  made  of  leaves^  (often  of  the  palasa  tree  or  the  plan- 
tain) and  placed  before  each  person;  but  no  one  begins 
eating  till  certain  religious  forms  have  been  gone  through. 
In  the  first  place,  there  is  the  usual  acamana  or  sipping  of 
water  for  internal  purification  (p.  402).  Each  person  pours 
water  with  a  spoon  into  the  palm  of  the  hand,  then  some 
one  leads  the  others,  and  all  sip  together.  Next,  water  is 
sprinkled  in  a  circle  round  each  plate,  and  some  one  of  the 
company  repeats  a  grace  or  prayer  before  eating.  The  most 
common  prayer  is  from  two  passages  in  the  Taittirlya  Brah- 
mana  ^,  as  follows  : — 

*  May  rivers  continue  to  flow,  may  clouds  rain,  may  plants  produce 
good  fruit  (for  the  support  of  the  world),  may  I  be  the  lord  of  lands 
(grama  Com.)  that  produce  food,  rice,  and  curds.' 

'They  extol  food  (saying),  that  which  is  food  is  certainly  a  great  divine 
power,  since  it  leads  a  man  (him)  to  supreme  prosperity.' 

The  first  clause  of  this  curious  prayer  seems  to  be  a  bene- 
diction spoken  for  the  benefit  of  the  world  at  large  ;  the  second 
is  for  the  good  of  the  speaker ;  the  third  is  a  glorification  of 
the  food  which  the  speaker  is  about  to  eat.  Sometimes  the 
following  text  from  the  Rig-veda  (X.  121.  10)  precedes  the 
prayer : — 

'  O  Lord  of  all  creatures,  no  one  else  but  thou  keepest 
all  these  living  beings  encircled  by  thy  care ;  with  whatever 
desires  we  sacrifice  to  thee,  let  the  fruit  of  that  be  to  us ; 
may  we  become  possessors  of  wealth  ^.' 

^  In  large  towns  plates  of  metal  are  generally  used. 

"^  Taittirlya  Brahmana  II.  7. 16.  4,  and  I.  7.  10.  6.  The  following  is  the 
Sanskrit  text :  Yantu  nadayo  varshantu  parjanyah  supippala  oshadhayo 
bhavantu,  annavatam  odanavatam  amikshavatam  eshain  raja  bhuyasam. 

Odanam  udbruvate,  parameshthi  va  eshah,  yad  odanah  paramam  evai- 
narn  sriyarn  gamayati. 

'  Prajapate  na  tvad  etany  anyo  visva  jatani  pari  ta  babhuva,  yat-kamas 
te  juhumas  tan  no  astu,  vayam  syama  patayo  raylnam.  In  Kulluka's  Com- 
mentary to  Manu(II.  54)  a  much  simpler  form  of  grace  before  meat  is  given. 
The  eater  is  told  that  he  is  always  to  honour  his  food  and  never  despise 
it,  and  to  pray  that  he  may  always  obtain  it  (nityam  asmakam  etad  astu). 


Offerings  ai  Dinner.  425 

After  the  recitation  of  this  grace  the  actual  business  of 
eating  may  begin,  but  each  person  first  places  either  four  or 
five  small  mouthfuls  (grfisa)  of  food  on  the  ground  on  the 
right  side  of  his  leaf-plate.  These  are  called  simply  ahuti, 
'  offerings  \'  or  sometimes  Uitrfduiti,  'offerings  to  Citra,'  or  to 
Citragupta,  whose  power  in  the  intermediate  state  after  death 
is  especially  dreaded  (see  p.  292).  While  placing  the  mouth- 
fuls  he  ought  to  say,  'Homage  to  Citra-,  to  Citragupta ^  to 
Yama,  to  Yama-dharma,  to  Bhur,  bhuvah,  svar/ 

After  the  dinner  is  over  these  mouthfuls  are  left  to  be  eaten 
by  cats  (if  there  are  any  in  the  house),  or  together  with  the 
leaf-plates  and  whatever  is  left  upon  them,  they  are  thrown  to 
the  cows,  or  simply  thrown  out  of  the  house  to  be  eaten  by 
dogs  or  animals  of  any  kind.  The  evening  family  meal  is 
a  less  formal  ceremony. 

*  In  the  same  way,  whenever  a  Roman  family  sat  down  to  meals,  a 
portion  of  the  food  was  presented  to  the  Lares,  regarded  as  departed 
spirits. 

^  Citraya  namah,  etc.,  or  svaha,  may  be  substituted  for  namah. 

^  (Citragupta  is  the  recorder  who  records  the  sins  and  merits  of  man- 
kind in  Yama's  world. 


CHAPTER    XVI. 

Hindu  Fasts,  Festivals,  and  Holy  Days. 

No  country  upon  earth  rejoices  in  a  longer  list  of  holidays, 
festivals  (utsava),  and  seasons  of  rejoicing,  qualified  by  fasts 
(upavasa,  vrata),  vigils  (jagarana),  and  seasons  of  mortification, 
than  India.  Most  of  these  fasts  and  festivals  are  fixed  to 
take  place  on  certain  lunar  days  (tithi),  each  lunation  or 
period  of  rather  more  than  twenty-seven  solar  days  being 
divided  into  thirty  of  these  lunar  days,  fifteen  of  which  during 
the  moon's  increase  constitute  the  light  half  of  the  month, 
and  the  other  fifteen  the  dark  half.  Some  festivals,  however, 
are  regulated  by  the  supposed  motions  of  the  sun.  To  de- 
scribe all  the  fasts  and  festivals  would  require  a  volume. 
I  can  only  indicate  some  of  those  most  commonly  observed. 
And  first,  with  regard  to  the  general  custom  of  fasting,  it 
may  be  worth  while  to  point  out  that  no  Christian  man — be 
he  Roman  Catholic  or  Anglican — not  even  the  most  austere 
stickler  for  the  most  strict  observance  of  every  appointed 
period  of  humiliation  and  abstinence,  can  for  a  moment  hope 
to  compete  with  any  religious  native  of  India — Hindu  or 
Muhammadan — who  may  have  entered  on  a  course  of  fasting, 
abstinence,  and  bodily  maceration. 

In  point  of  fact,  the  constant  action  of  a  tropical  climate, 
and  the  peculiar  social  habits  of  the  sons  of  the  soil  in 
Eastern  countries  continued  for  centuries,  have  induced  a 
condition  of  body  which  enables  them  to  practise  the  most 
severe  and  protracted  abstinence  with  impunity,  and  even 
with  benefit ;  while  European  Christians,  who,  with  a  view 
of  increasing  their  influence,  endeavour  to  set  an  example 


IlindiJ  Fasts,  Festivals,  and  Holy  Days.      427 

of  self-mortification,  find  themselves  quite  outdone  and  left 
hopelessly  in  the  rear  by  a  thousand  devotees  in  every  sacred 
city  of  India  \ 

It  must  of  course  be  borne  in  mind  that  fasting  is  practised 
by  Indian  devotees,  not  as  a  penitential  exercise,  but  as  a 
means  of  accumulating  religious  merit.  Moreover,  severe  self- 
mortification  is  always  connected  with  the  fancied  attainment 
of  extraordinary  sanctity  or  superhuman  powers.  Amongst 
other  objects  aimed  at  is  the  acquirement  of  a  kind  of  preter- 
natural or  ethereal  lightness  of  body.  By  long  fasting  a  man 
is  believed  to  achieve  what  is  called  Laghima  ;  that  is  to  say, 
his  frame  becomes  so  buoyant  and  sublimated  by  abstinence, 
that  the  force  of  gravitation  loses  its  power  of  binding  him  to 
the  earth,  and  he  is  able  to  sit  or  float  in  the  air.  It  may 
seem  the  very  height  of  superstitious  credulity  to  give  cre- 
dence to  an  emaciated  Hindu  claiming  to  triumph  in  this 
way  over  the  laws  of  matter ;  yet  cool-headed  and  sceptical 
Englishmen  of  unimpeachable  sincerity  have  been  invited  to 
witness  the  achievements  of  these  so-called  Yogis,  and  have 
come  away  convinced  of  their  genuineness  and  ready  to 
testify  to  the  absence  of  all  fraud. 

Nevertheless,  it  must  be  noted  that  the  rules  of  fasting,  as 
practised  by  natives  of  India  in  the  present  day,  are  by  no 
means  so  stringent  as  they  were  in  ancient  times.  Several 
severe  forms  of  abstinence  are  specified  by  Manu.  For  ex- 
ample, the  fast  called  '  very  painful '  (ati-kricchra)  consisted 
in  eating  only  a  single  mouthful  every  day  for  nine  days,  and 
then  abstaining  from  all  food  for  the  three  following  days 
(Manu  XI.  213). 

Another  notable  fast  was  that  called  'the  lunar  vow'  (can- 

^  The  truth  is  that  any  breach  of  the  Creator's  law  of  adaptation  is 
sure  to  be  followed  by  a  Nemesis,  and  those  pious  and  devoted  English- 
men who  practise  protracted  abstinence  from  religious  motives  in  an 
exhausting  Indian  atmosphere  cannot  expect  to  be  exempt  from  the 
operation  of  this  law.  We  have  recently  had,  I  am  sorry  to  say,  several 
sad  examples  of  useful  careers  arrested  through  this  cause. 


428      Hindu  Fasts,  Festivals,  ajid  Holy  Days. 

drayana-vrata).  It  consisted  in  diminishing  the  consumption 
of  food  every  day  by  one  mouthful  for  the  waning  half  of  the 
lunar  month,  beginning  with  fifteen  mouthfuls  at  the  full 
moon  until  the  quantity  was  reduced  to  nil  at  the  new  moon, 
and  then  increasing  it  in  like  manner  during  the  fortnight 
of  the  moon's  increase  (Manu  VI.  20,  XL  216). 

In  the  present  day  every  religious  Hindu  fasts  twice  in 
every  lunar  month — that  is  on  the  eleventh  day  (ekadasi)  in 
each  fortnight.  These  fasts  are  usually  kept  in  honour  of 
Vishnu,  but  are  not  very  strictly  observed,  as  fruit  and  milk 
are  allowed.  The  Saivas  usually  fast  on  the  thirteenth  or 
fourteenth  day  of  the  dark  half  of  every  month,  on  the  day 
and  night  called  Siva-ratri,  '  Siva's  night,'  in  anticipation  of 
the  great  fast  on  the  night  of  Siva,  kept  once  a  year  (p.  430). 
The  evening  before  is  called  Pradosha.  Some,  again,  fast 
in  honour  of  Ganesa  on  the  fourth  lunar  day  (caturthi)  once 
a  month,  in  anticipation  of  the  chief  Ganesa  fast  once  a  year 

(P-431)- 

An  Indian  friend  of  mine  told  me  that,  when  a  little  boy, 

he  accidentally  crushed  a  sparrow ;    whereupon  his  mother 

made  him  keep  an  eleventh-day  fast,  the  merit  (punya)  of 

which  was  credited  to  the  spirit  of  the  dead  sparrow. 

Other  chief  festivals  and  fasts  beginning  with  Magha — 
corresponding  to  our  January-February — are  as  follow : — 

Makara-sahkranti  (popularly  Sankrant),  in  celebration  of 
the  commencement  of  the  sun's  northern  course  (uttarayana) 
in  the  heavens.  To  mark  this,  a  kind  of  New  Year's  festival 
is  observed  towards  the  end  of  Pausha  or  beginning  of  Magha 
(about  January  12).  The  sun  has  then  reached  the  most 
southern  point  of  the  ecliptic.  It  is  a  period  of  rejoicing 
everywhere,  especially  as  marking  the  termination  of  the  in- 
auspicious month  Pausha  (December-January) ;  but  it  is  not 
really  the  beginning  of  a  new  year,  which  varies  in  different 
parts  of  India.  In  Bengal  it  may  be  called  the  *  Festival  of 
good  cheer.'     Practically,  at  least,  it  is  kept  by  free  indulg- 


Huidft  Fash,  Festivals,  and  Holy  Days.      429 

cnce  in  the  eating  of  cakes,  sweetmeats,  and  other  good 
things.  At  one  of  the  most  sacred  phices  in  India,  Prayaga 
(Allahabad),  where  the  Jumna  and  Ganges  meet,  a  celebrated 
religious  fair  (Mela)  takes  place  during  this  season. 

The  same  festival  in  the  South  of  India  is  commonly  called 
Pongal  (or  Pungal).  It  marks  the  commencement  of  the 
Tamil  )'ear,  and  is  the  day  for  congratulatory  visits.  People 
purchase  new  cooking-pots  and  boil  fresh  rice  in  milk.  Then 
they  salute  each  other  with  the  question — '  Has  the  milk 
boiled .'*'  to  which  the  answer  is  given  that  'the  boiling 
(pongal)  is  over.'  In  reality  the  South  Indian  festival  seems 
to  be  dedicated  to  the  glorification  of  agriculture.  Cattle  are 
decorated  with  garlands,  their  horns  coloured,  and  mango 
leaves  hung  round  their  necks.  Then  they  are  led  about  in 
procession,  exempted  from  all  labour,  and  virtually,  if  not 
actually,  worshipped. 

Vasanta-panc'aml,  on  the  5th  of  the  light  half  of  Magha 
(January-February).  This  is  a  spring  festival.  In  Bengal 
SarasvatT  (Sri),  goddess  of  arts  and  learning,  is  worshipped  at 
this  season.  No  reading  or  writing  takes  place,  and  the  day 
is  observed  as  a  holiday  in  all  public  and  mercantile  offices. 
The  worship  is  performed  either  before  an  image  of  the  god- 
dess, or  before  an  ink-stand,  pens,  paper,  and  other  implements 
of  writing  taken  to  represent  the  image.  Sometimes  an  offici- 
ating priest  is  called  in  who  reads  the  prescribed  formulae, 
and  presents  rice,  fruits,  sweetmeats,  flowers,  etc.,  while  the 
lay- worshippers  stand  before  the  images  or  symbols  with 
flowers  in  their  hands,  beseeching  the  goddess  to  grant  them 
the  blessings  of  learning,  wealth,  fame,  and  health. 

Moreover,  on  this  day,  according  to  Mr.  S.  C.  Bose,  every 
Pandit  in  Bengal  who  keeps  a  school  sets  up  an  image  of 
SarasvatT  and  invites  his  patrons  and  friends  to  call  upon 
him  and  do  honour  to  the  goddess.  This  they  do  by  making 
offerings  of  rupees,  which  really  form  an  important  part  of 
the    Pandit's   annual    income.      It   is  a  significant  fact   that 


430      Hindu  Fasts,  Festivals,  and  Holy  Days. 

females  are  not  allowed  to  take  part  in  the  worship  of  this 
goddess,  though  she  be  of  their  own  sex. 

Maha-Siva-ratri,  or  'great  Siva-nlght,'  is  held  on  the  14th  of 
the  dark  half  of  Magha  (about  the  middle  or  end  of  February). 
A  fast  is  observed  during  the  day,  and  a  vigil  kept  at  night, 
when  the  Liiiga  is  worshipped  (see  p.  90),  At  this  season 
many  pilgrims  flock  to  the  places  dedicated  to  Siva. 

Holl  or  Hutasani  festival — identified  with  the  Dola-yatra, 
or  rocking  of  the  image  of  Krishna^ — is  celebrated,  espe- 
cially in  the  upper  provinces,  as  a  kind  of  Hindu  Saturnalia 
or  Carnival,  and  is  therefore  very  popular.  It  commences 
about  ten  days  before  the  full  moon  of  Phalguna  (February- 
March),  but  is  usually  only  observed  for  the  last  three  or 
four  days,  terminating  with  the  full  moon.  Boys  dance  about 
in  the  streets,  and  inhabitants  of  houses  sprinkle  the  passers- 
by  with  red  or  yellow  powder,  use  squirts  and  play  practical 
jokes.  Rough  sports,  obscene  songs,  loud  music,  merriment, 
mid-night  orgies,  and  excesses  of  all  kinds  are  the  rule. 
Towards  the  close  of  the  festival,  about  the  night  of  full  moon, 
a  bonfire  is  lighted  and  games — representing  the  frolics  of  the 
young  Krishna — take  place  around  the  expiring  embers. 

Rama-navamI — the  birthday  of  Rama-candra — is  observed 
on  the  9th  of  the  light  half  of  the  month  Caitra  (March- 
April),  and  is  kept  by  some  as  a  strict  fast.  The  temples 
of  Rama  are  illuminated,  and  his  image  adorned  with  costly 
ornaments.  The  Ramayana  is  read  in  the  temples,  and 
Naches  (Nautches)  are  kept  up  during  the  night. 

Naga-pancamI  is  held  on  the  5th  day  of  the  light  half  of 
Sravana,  in  honour  of  the  "Nagas. 

Two  days  later  comes  the  Sltala-saptaml,  in  honour  of  the 
Small-pox  goddess  (p.  228),  when  only  cold  food  is  eaten. 

Krishna-janmashtamI,  the  birthday  of  Krishna — kept   on 

^  The  meaning  of  Holi  is  doubtful.  It  may  be  merely  an  imitation  of 
the  sounds  and  cries  made  by  the  revellers.  By  some  the  festival  is  said 
to  be  in  commemoration  of  the  killing  of  the  demon  Madhu  by  Krishna. 


Hindu  Fasts,  Festivals,  and  Holy  Days.      431 

the  8th  of  the  dark  half  of  the  montli  IJhadra  or  (in  Bombay 
and  the  South)  of  Sravana  (July-August) — is  one  of  the 
greatest  of  all  Hindu   holidays  (see  p.  113}. 

The  variation  in  time  in  this  and  other  festivals  is  caused 
by  the  circumstance  that  the  months  of  the  Northern  and 
Southern  Brahmans  differ  in  the  dark  fortnight. 

Gancsa-caturthI — the  birthday  of  Ganesa — is  observed  on 
the  4th  of  the  light  half  of  the  month  Bhadra  (August- 
September).  Clay  figures  of  the  deity  are  made,  and  after 
being  worshipped  for  a  few  days,  thrown  into  the  water. 

Sixteen  consecutive  lunar  days  are  devoted  to  the  per- 
formance of  Sraddhas  in  the  dark  half  of  Bhadra,  which  is 
therefore  called  the  Pitri-paksha  (see  p.  308). 

Durga-puja,  or  Nava-ratra,  '  nine  nights,'  commencing  on 
the  I  St  and  ending  on  the  loth  day  of  the  light  half  of 
Asvina  (September-October),  are  celebrated  in  various  parts 
of  India,  especially  Bengal,  and  connected  with  the  autumnal 
equinox.  Nominally  they  commemorate  the  victory  of  Durga, 
wife  of  Siva,  over  a  buffalo-headed  demon  (Mahishasur),  The 
form  under  which  she  is  adored  is  that  of  an  image  with 
ten  arms  and  a  weapon  in  each  hand,  her  right  leg  resting 
on  a  lion  and  her  left  on  the  buffalo  demon.  This  image  is 
worshipped  for  nine  days — following  on  the  sixteen  Sraddhas 
of  the  Pitri-paksha — and  then  cast  into  the  water. 

The  tenth  day  is  called  Vijaya-dasamI,  or  Dasa-hara. 

Kall-puja  is  a  kindred  festival  in  Bengal,  lasting  only  for 
one  night,  and  that  the  darkest  night  of  the  dark  fortnight 
of  the  month  Karttika.  The  image  worshipped  is  that  of 
KcllT,  the  dark  and  terrible  form  of  Siva's  wife  described  at 
p.  189.  The  well-known  temple  at  Kali  Ghat  near  Calcutta 
and  other  shrines  of  the  goddess  are  during  this  night 
drenched  with  the  blood  of  goats,  sheep,  and  buffaloes  sacri- 
ficed in  honour  of  the  sanguinary  goddess. 

Rama-lila,  'Rama-play,'  is  celebrated  in  some  parts  of  India 
on  the  day  when  the  Bengalis  commit  their  images  of  Durga 


432      Hmdu  Fasts,  Festivals,  and  Holy  Days. 

to  the  waters.  It  is  a  dramatic  representation  of  the  abduc- 
tion of  Sita,  concluding  with  the  death  of  Ravana. 

Divall  (properly  Dipall  or  Dipavall),  '  the  feast  of  lamps,'  is 
observed  twenty  days  after  the  Nava-ratra  on  the  last  two 
days  of  the  dark  half  of  Asvina,  and  on  the  new  moon  and 
four  following  days  of  Karttika,  in  honour  of  Vishnu's  wife 
Lakshml  or  of  Siva's  wife  BhavanI  (Parvati).  It  is  marked  by 
-beautiful  illuminations,  in  the  preparation  of  which  Indians 
far  excel  Europeans. 

In  some  parts  of  India  the  Sarasvatl-puja  (described  p.  429) 
is  kept  at  this  season,  on  the  8th  of  the  light  half  of  Asvina. 

The  Divall  is  celebrated  with  splendid  effect  at  Benares. 
There  its  magnificence  is  heightened  by  the  situation  of 
the  city  on  the  bank  of  the  river  and  the  unique  contour  of 
the  buildings.  At  the  approach  of  night  small  earthen  lamps, 
fed  with  oil,  are  prepared  by  millions,  and  placed  quite  close 
together  so  as  to  mark  out  every  line  of  mansion,  palace, 
temple,  minaret,  and  dome  in  streaks  of  fire.  All  the  vessels 
on  the  river  are  lighted  up,  and  the  city  is  a  blaze  of  light 
(see  Asiatic  Journal  for  1833).  Viewed  from  the  water  it  pre- 
sents a  superb  spectacle,  'a  scene  of  fairy  splendour,'  the  like 
of  which  is  not  to  be  seen  in  any  other  city  of  the  world. 
Similar  spectacles  in  the  great  European  capitals  appear  ab- 
solutely paltry  by  comparison.  Perhaps  the  illuminations  which 
took  place  on  the  occasion  of  the  Prince  of  Wales'  visit  to 
Calcutta  and  Benares  in  1876  reached  the  climax  of  perfection, 
and  will  never  be  equalled  for  beauty  and  magnificence. 

Karttika-purnima  is  a  festival  kept  on  the  full  moon  of 
the  month  Karttika  (October-November),  in  honour  of  Siva's 
victory  over  the  demon  called  Tripurasura. 

It  must  be  noted  that  the  months  are  lunar  and  that  the 
calendar  varies  in  different  parts  of  India.  Every  month,  such 
as  Sravana,  Vaisakha,  and  the  intercalary  or  thirteenth  month  ^ 

'  There  is  an  allusion  to  this  thirteenth  month  in  Rig-veda  I.  25.  8,  and 
in  Atharva-veda  V,  6.  4,  XIII.  3.  8. 


Hindu  Fasts,  Festivals,  and  Holy  Days.      43 


(Adhika-masa),  has  its  Mahatmya  or  excellence.  When  the 
intercalary  month  comes  round  every  third  }-ear,  preachers 
make  the  most  of  their  opportunity,  and  read  its  Mahatmya 
in  large  towns,  hoping  thereby  to  stimulate  the  generosity 
of  the  people.  Then,  again,  if  a  conjunction  of  the  moon 
(or  in  some  places  a  full  moon)  fall  on  a  Monday,  this  is 
an  astronomical  coincidence  that  must  be  turned  to  the 
best  account.  It  is  a  conjuncture  peculiarly  favourable  to 
charitable  acts.  The  same  may  be  said  of  eclipses.  A  single 
rupee  given  at  such  seasons  is  worth  a  thousand  rupees  at 
other  times. 

Moreover,  every  day  of  the  week  has  its  sacred  character. 
Monday  is  especially  sacred  to  Siva  (Maha-deva).  Pious 
persons  often  fast  on  this  day  and  worship  the  Lihga  in  the 
evening.  Saturday  is  Hanuman's  day,  and  offerings  are 
especially  made  to  him  on  that  day.  Then  the  eighth  day 
in  every  lunar  fortnight  is  sacred  to  Durga.  This  is  a  day 
when  no  study  is  allowed,  and  therefore  called  An-adhyaya. 
Indeed  holy  days  or  non-reading  days  may  be  multiplied  in- 
definitely. Thus  a  pupil  will  stop  reading  and  go  home  if  it 
happens  to  thunder,  if  any  person  or  animal  chances  to  pass 
between  himself  and  his  teacher,  if  a  guest  arrives,  and  often 
during  the  greater  part  of  the  rainy  season. 

No  less  than  four  eras  are  commonly  current  among  the 
Hindus  in  India: — i.  Sarnvat  (of  King  Vikramaditya),  rec- 
koned from  ^']  B.C.;  2.  Saka  (of  King  Sfdivahana),  reckoned 
from  78  A.  D.;  3.  San,  current  in  Bengal,  reckoned  from  593  A. D.; 
4.  The  era  of  Parasu-rama,  current  in  Malabar,  reckoned  from 
1 176  B.C.  In  almanacks  it  is  usual  to  state  how  many  years 
of  the  present  age  of  the  world  or  Kali-yuga  (p.  39H) 
have  elapsed  ;  thus  at  present  49H4  out  of  432,000  years  have 
gone  by.  The  three  previous  ages  are  the  Krita  or  Satja, 
Treta,  and  Dvapara.  Almanacks  which  follow  the  Saka  era 
begin  the  year  with  the  light  half  of  the  month  Caitra.  but 
the  Samvat  year  usually  commences  with  Karttika. 

l-f 


CHAPTER   XVII. 

Temples,  S/wines,  and  Sacred  Places. 

It  is  well  known  that  the  principal  seat  and  great  centre 
of  the  cultus  of  Siva  is  Benares  (Varanasl)^ — a  city  whose 
world-wide  celebrity  has  earned  for  it  the  title  of  Kasi,  'the 
resplendent.'  In  the  Kasl-khanda  of  the  Skanda-purana  it  is 
recorded  how  the  god  himself  chose  that  city  for  his  special 
abode,  and  how  after  having  undergone  severe  austerities  in 
the  neighbourhood  he  made  it  sacred  to  himself  and  to  his 
sons  Ganesa  and  Skanda  (p.  211). 

Elsewhere  Benares  is  described  as  a  special  creation  of  the 
Creator^  who  formed  it  of  pure  unpolluted  earth,  separated  it 
from  the  rest  of  the  world,  and  caused  it  to  rest  on  one  of  the 
points  of  Siva's  trident. 

No  doubt  Benares  w^as  one  of  the  first  cities  to  acquire  a 
reputation  for  sanctity,  and  is  still  regarded  as  the  most 
sacred  spot  in  all  India.  It  is  the  Hindu's  Jerusalem  and 
Mecca.  Here,  temples,  shrines,  and  idols  are  multiplied 
beyond  all  calculation.  Here  every  inch  of  ground,  every 
clod  of  earth  is  hallowed,  and  the  very  air  believed  to 
be  holy. 

No  wonder,  then,  that  every  pious  Hindu  is  ambitious  of 
accomplishing  at  least  one  pilgrimage  to  what  he  regards  as  a 
portion  of  heaven  let  down  upon  earth,  and  if  he  can  happily 
manage  to  die  within  the  magic  circle  of  what  is  called  the 

*  The  popular  name  is  more  properly  written  Banaras.  The  name 
VaranasT,  of  which  it  is  a  corruption,  is  said  to  be  derived  from  two 
small  rivers  outside  the  city,  the  Varana  or  Varna  and  the  y\.sT. 


Temples  and  Sacred  Places.     Benares.        435 

PancakosT — that  is  to  say,  within  a  circuit  of  ten  miles  round 
the  centre  of  the  holy  city — nay,  if  the  most  desperate 
criminal  from  any  part  of  the  world — be  he  of  any  religious 
denomination,  Christian,  Buddhist,  or  Muhammadan — die 
there,  no  amount  of  the  most  heinous  guilt,  not  even  the 
deadly  sin  of  eating  beef,  can  prevent  his  immediate  trans- 
portation to  the  heaven  of  Siva.  Yet  Benares  is  by  no  means 
exclusively  dedicated  to  Siva  ;  nor  are  its  inhabitants  exclu- 
sively devoted  to  the  worship  of  any  one  deity  in  particular. 
Benares  is  the  very  citadel  of  Brahmanism — the  stronghold  of 
every  form  of  Hinduism — the  great  central  focus  from  which 
all  the  lines  of  the  most  complicated  religious  system  in  the 
world  diverge,  and  to  which  they  again  converge.  Here 
priestcraft  reigns  supreme  in  all  its  plenitude  and  power. 
Here  a  population  of  above  2CO,ooo  persons,  men,  women  and 
children,  and  a  countless  number  of  pilgrims  deliver  them- 
selves up  to  be  deluded,  defrauded,  and  kept  in  moral  and 
religious  slavery  by  25,000  arrogant  Briihmans. 

Picturesquely  situated  on  the  Ganges  and  stretching  for 
three  or  four  miles  along  this  most  sacred  of  all  rivers,  with 
magnificent  Ghats  or  flights  of  steps  conducting  pilgrims  by 
thousands  into  the  very  midst  of  the  hallowed  waters,  Benares 
is  the  home  of  every  form  of  Hindu  religious  earnestness  and 
enthusiasm,  combined  with  every  conceivable  variety  of 
hideous  superstition  and  fanaticism. 

No  description  indeed  can  give  the  slightest  idea  of  the 
reality  of  the  sight  presented  to  the  eye  by  this  unique  city. 
The  traveller  bent  on  investigating  its  inner  mysteries,  and 
eager  to  solve  for  himself  the  riddle  of  the  grosser  forms  of 
its  superstition  and  fanaticism,  finds  that  his  only  hope  of 
traversing  its  tortuous  streets,  or  penetrating  the  living  tide 
which  daily  ebbs  and  flows  in  its  leading  thoroughfares,  is  by 
trusting  to  his  personal  powers  as  a  pedestrian.  Pushing  his 
way  through  the  seething  throng  he  beholds  everywhere,  as 
he  advances,  the  most  striking  contrasts  and  curious  incon- 


F  f 


■» 


43^         Temples  and  Sacred  Places.     Benares. 

gruities — princely  mansions  and  mean  tenements,  handsome 
edifices  and  fantastic  freaks  of  architecture,  crowded  shrines 
and  empty  sanctuaries,  bright  new  temples  and  dilapidated 
fanes,  freshly  gilded  domes  and  mildewed  pinnacles,  graceful 
minarets  and  unsightly  cupolas,  open  streets  and  impassable 
lanes,  dirty  squares  and  well-kept  quadrangles — everywhere 
and  from  every  point  of  view  a  strange  intermingling  of  the 
beautiful  and  the  grotesque,  the  tasteful  and  the  bizarre,  the 
simple  and  the  extravagant. 

The  living  objects  which  meet  his  eye  as  he  proceeds  are 
not  less  interesting,  odd,  and  incongruous.  Now  he  is  jostled 
by  sacred  bulls  which  wander  everywhere  free  and  uncon- 
trolled ;  now  a  number  of  impudent  monkeys  bound  over  his 
head  or  spring  from  roof  to  roof;  now  a  dozen  sacred  pigeons 
fly  fearlessly  almost  into  his  face,  or  a  flight  of  parrots  circle 
noisily  around  his  head.  In  one  part  of  the  city  he  is  hemmed 
in  before  some  sacred  pool  or  noted  temple  by  a  motley 
throng  of  pilgrims,  some  pressing  forward  to  perform  their 
ablutions,  some  carrying  Ganges  water  for  use  at  the  idol- 
shrines,  some  vociferating  the  name  of  their  favourite  gods. 
In  another  quarter  he  is  surrounded  by  groups  of  half-naked 
mendicants  and  dirty  devotees,  many  of  whom  parade  their 
bodily  austerities  in  a  manner  highly  repulsive  to  European 
eyes.  Here  he  struggles  with  difficulty  through  streets  of  copper- 
smiths and  workers  in  brass.  There  his  path  is  obstructed 
by  the  stalls  of  vendors  of  coarse  sweetmeats,  sellers  of  flower- 
garlands,  or  money-changers  sitting  behind  heaps  of  cowries 
and  piles  of  gold  and  silver  coins.  Everywhere  temples, 
shrines,  mosques,  images  and  symbols,  holy  wells,  pools,  and 
sacred  trees  present  themselves  in  bewildering  confusion. 

The  number  of  principal  temples  is  at  least  two  thousand. 
Smaller  shrines  are,  of  course,  innumerable.  Of  Muham- 
madan  mosques  the  total  is  said  to  amount  to  three  hundred. 
The  tale  of  idols  is  computed  at  about  half  a  million. 
The  chief  temple  called  the  'golden  temple,'  dedicated   to 


Temples  and  Sac  reel  Places.     Benares.        437 

Siva  or  Maha-dcva  (see  p.  78),  is  disappointing  to  any  one 
who  has  seen  the  South  Indian  temples ;  for  although  Siva  is 
specially  worshipped  and  propitiated  at  Benares  he  has  no- 
where so  many  earnest  votaries  as  in  the  vSouth,  and  the 
Benares  temple  in  respect  of  size,  external  appearance  and 
importance  is  to  the  great  temples  of  Tanjore,  Madura  and 
Tinnevelly,  what  a  village  church  is  to  St.  Paul's  Cathedral. 

The  fact  is  that  the  waves  of  Muhammadan  invasion  which 
swept  over  the  North-west  and  Central  provinces  of  India, 
and  seemed  at  one  time  likely  to  obliterate  Brahmanism 
altogether,  were  either  arrested  in  their  onward  course  or  else 
spent  themselves  before  reaching  the  South.  This  is  remark- 
ably illustrated  at  Benares^  where  the  most  conspicuous  build- 
ing is  the  great  mosque  of  AurangzTb  with  its  lofty  minarets 
on  the  Ganges.  Even  the  old  original  Saiva  temple  of  Visve- 
.svara  does  not  exist.  It  was  pulled  down  by  the  ruthless 
AurangzTb  and  a  mosque  built  on  its  foundations  ^  Another 
temple,  however,  speedily  arose  close  at  hand  and  rivalled  the 
old  one  in  picturesque  beauty,  if  not  in  size.  It  stands  at  a 
distance  of  two  or  three  hundred  yards  from  its  predecessor. 
]5ctween  them  is  the  Jaana-vripT,  or  holy  well  of  knowledge — 
a  spot  greatly  frequented  and  held  in  the  highest  veneration 
by  pilgrims  from  all  parts  of  the  country — a  legend  being 
universally  current  that  when  AurangzTb  destroyed  the  Hindu 
temple  its  idol  took  refuge  of  its  own  accord  at  the  bottom  of 
this  holy  well.  Thither  therefore  a  constant  throng  of  wor- 
shippers continually  resort,  bringing  with  them  offerings  of 
flowers,  rice  and  other  grain,  which  they  throw  into  the  water 
thirty  or  forty  feet  below  the  ground.  A  Brfdiman  is  per- 
petually employed  in  drawing  up  the  putrid  liquid,  the  smell 
or  rather  stench  of  which  from  incessant  admixture  of  dc- 
ca}'ing  flowers  and  vegetable  matter  makes  the  ncighbourhooti 


'  According  to  Mr.  Sherring— whose  book  on  Benares  is  well  worthy 
of  perusal — there  was  a  still  earlier  temple  on  a  site  not  far  distant. 


438         Tanples  and  Sacred  Places.     Benares. 

almost  unbearable.  This  he  pours  with  a  ladle  into  the  hands 
"of  expectant  crowds,  who  cither  drink  it  with  avidity  or 
sprinkle  it  reverentially  over  their  persons.  A  still  more 
sacred  well,  called  the  Mani-karnika,  situated  on  one  of  the 
chief  Ghats  leading  to  the  Ganges,  owes  its  origin,  in  popular 
belief,  to  the  fortunate  circumstance  that  one  of  Siva's 
ear-rings  happened  to  fall  on  the  spot. 

This  well  is  near  the  surface  and  quite  exposed  to  view. 
It  forms  a  small  quadrangular  pool  not  more  than  three  feet 
deep.  Four  flights  of  steps  on  the  four  sides  lead  to  the 
water,  the  disgusting  foulness  of  which  in  the  estimation  of 
countless  pilgrims  vastly  enhances  its  efficacy  for  the  removal 
of  sin.  The  most  abandoned  criminals  journey  from  distant 
parts  of  India  to  the  margin  of  this  sacred  pool.  There  they 
secure  the  services  of  Brahmans  appointed  to  the  duty,  and 
descending  with  them  into  the  water  are  made  to  repeat 
certain  texts  and  mutter  certain  mystic  formulae,  the  meaning 
of  which  they  are  wholly  unable  to  understand.  Then  while 
in  the  act  of  repeating  the  words  put  into  their  mouths  they 
eagerly  immerse  their  entire  persons  beneath  the  offensive 
liquid.  The  longed-for  dip  over,  a  miraculous  transformation 
is  the  result ;  for  the  foul  water  has  cleansed  the  still  fouler 
soul.  Few  Hindus  venture  to  doubt  that  the  most  depraved 
sinner  in  existence  may  thus  be  converted  into  an  immaculate 
saint,  worthy  of  being  translated  at  once  to  the  highest  heaven 
of  the  god  of  Benares. 

But  to  return  to  the  temple  of  Visvesvara.  I  found,  when  I 
visited  it,  a  constant  stream  of  worshippers  passing  in  and  out. 
In  fact,  Siva  in  his  character  of  lord  of  the  universe  (see  p.  78) 
is  the  supreme  deity  of  Benares.  Not  that  the  pilgrims 
are  prohibited  from  worshipping  at  the  shrines  of  other 
gods,  but  that  Siva  is  here  paramount  and  claims  the 
first  homage.  Yet  this  supreme  god  has  no  image ;  he 
is  represented  by  a  plain  conical  stone — to  wit,  the  Liiiga 
or    symbol    of    male    generative    power.      The    method    of 


Tc7}iplcs  and  Sacred  Places,     Tanjore.        439 

performing  worship  in  this  great  central  and  confessedly 
typical  temple  of  Hinduism  appeared  to  mc  very  remarkable 
in  its  contrast  with  all  Christian  ideas  of  the  nature  of  worshii). 
All  that  each  worshipper  did  was  to  bring  Ganges-water  witli 
him  in  a  small  metal  vessel  and  pour  the  water  over  the  stone 
Lihga,  at  the  same  time  ringing  one  of  the  bells  hanging  from 
the  roof  to  attract  the  god's  attention  towards  himself,  bowing 
low  in  obeisance,and  muttering  a  few  texts  with  repetition  of  the 
god's  name.  In  this  way  the  god's  S)'mbol  was  kept  per- 
[)ctually  deluged  with  water,  while  the  crowds  who  passed  in 
and  out  lingered  for  a  time  close  to  the  shrine,  talking  to  each 
other  in  loud  tones.  Nor  did  any  idea  of  irreverence  seem  to 
be  attached  to  noisy  vociferation  in  the  interior  of  the  sanctuary 
itself.  Nor  was  any  objection  made  to  an  unbeliever  like 
myself  approaching  and  looking  inside  ;  whereas  in  the  South 
of  India  I  was  strictly  excluded  from  all  the  avenues  to  the 
inner  Lihga-sanctuaries  (see  p.  447).  In  the  courts  adjacent 
to  the  Lihga  were  other  shrines  dedicated  to  various  deities, 
and  in  a  kind  of  cloister  or  gallery  which  encircled  the  temple 
were  thousands  of  stone  Lirigas  crowded  together  carelessly 
and  apparently  only  intended  as  votive-offerings.  I  noticed 
the  coil  of  a  serpent  carved  round  one  or  two  of  the  most 
conspicuous  symbols  of  male  generative  energy,  and  the  com- 
bination appeared  to  me  very  significant  and  instructive. 

The  goddess  Anna-purna  has  a  temple  close  at  hand.  She 
is  thought  to  be  charged  by  the  god  Siva  with  the  duty  of 
keeping  the  inhabitants  of  Benares  supplied  with  abundance 
of  food.  I  found  the  quadrangle  which  surrounds  this  shrine 
crowded  with  bulls,  cows,  priests,  and  mendicants,  who  are 
daily  fed  by  the  offerings  of  the  rich.  The  effluvium  emitted 
by  the  filth  and  dirt  was  insufferable. 

Turning  from  Benares  to  the  South  Indian  Saiva  temples, 
the  palm  must  be  conceded  to  that  at  Tanjore. 

It  is  contained  within  a  vast  quadrangle,  the  floor  of  which 
is  paved  with  bricks  and  kept  scrupulously  clean.     Two  lofty 


440        Temples  and  Sacred  Places.      Tanjore. 

Gopuras  or  gateways  surmounted  by  high  pyramidal  towers  ^ 
lead  into  this  square,  and  a  sort  of  double  cloister  or  arcade 
surrounds  it.  In  the  second  or  hinder  part  of  two  sides  of 
this  arcade  are  arranged  a  hundred  and  eight  black  stone 
Lingas  of  different  sizes,  one  for  each  of  the  hundred  and  eight 
principal  names  of  Siva,  and  behind  these  again  are  sixty-four 
frescoes  painted  on  the  wall — many  of  them  highly  grotesque — 
representing  various  exploits  of  the  god  or  his  attendants^, 
A  catalogue  of  sixty-three  saints  or  distinguished  personages 
whose  devotion  to  Siva  gave  them  the  power  of  working 
miracles  or  performing  supernatural  feats  is  sometimes  enu- 
merated ^.  On  the  left  of  the  quadrangle  as  you  enter  is 
a  pleasant  grove  of  palms  and  other  trees.  In  the  centre  is 
the  principal  temple,  containing  the  Garbha-griham  or  inner- 
most sanctuary  of  the  sacred  Liriga,  a  kind  of  holy  of  holies 
to  which  I  was  not  allowed  access.  This  is  an  imposing 
structure,  made  still  more  so  by  the  fine  Mandapa  or  open 
hall  erected  in  front  of  it  as  a  shrine  for  the  stone  image  of 
Siva's  bull  (nandi),  which  is  a  magnificent  specimen  of  Indian 
sculpture  of  great  size.  Near  the  principal  temple  are  four 
subordinate  ones,  two  behind  and  two  on  one  side.  Those 
behind  are  dedicated  to  the  two  sons  of  Siva,  one  to  Ganesa 
and  the  other  to  Su-brahmanya  (p,  2i]).  In  front  of  the 
Ganesa  temple  is  the  image  of  a  rat  looking  into  the  shrine,  as 
the  bull  does  into  the  shrine  of  Siva.  The  rat  is  an  emblem 
of  sagacity,  as  the  bull  is  of  strength  and  generative  power. 


^  These  structures  are  of  oblong  form,  and  sometimes  of  immense 
height.  They  are  only  pyramidal  in  the  sense  of  being  broader  at  the 
base  than  at  the  summit.  It  is  remarkable  that  Vaishnava  carvings  are 
found  on  these  Tanjore  Gopuras,  showing  that  the  temple  may  have  once 
belonged  to  the  Vaishnavas.  Everywhere  the  two  systems  seem  inter- 
mingled. 

'^  In  one  of  these  a  Lihga  is  represented  with  a  face  inside  it. 
Another  has  a  serpent  for  a  canopy.  In  another  Gandodara,  an  attendant 
of  Siva,  is  swallowing  mountains  of  rice  and  drinking  up  a  river. 

■'  The  catalogue  is  given  by  Mr.  Foulkes  in  his  Saiva  Catechism. 


Temples  and  Sacred  Places.     Tanjore.        441 

The  image  of  Su-brahmanya  or  Skanda  is  seated  on  a  peacock 
and  has  six  faces. 

One  of  the  side  temples  near  the  entrance  of  the  quadrangle 
contains  an  image  of  Siva,  lifting  up  his  left  leg  while  dancing 
the  Tandava  dance  and  trampling  on  the  Asura  Apasmara. 
He  holds  the  Damaru  in  one  hand,  using  it  for  a  musical 
instrument  or  rattle,  as  a  dancer  would  castanets.  This 
temple  has  some  curious  pictures  on  the  walls.  One  is  of 
Bhringi,  an  attendant  of  Siva,  who  became  so  feeble  and 
attenuated  through  self-mortification  ^  that  the  god  furnished 
him  with  a  third  leg  for  support ;  another  represents  an 
attendant  with  the  lower  part  of  his  body  terminating  in  a 
snake  ;  a  third  depicts  one  of  Siva's  servants  with  the  feet  of 
a  tiger.  In  a  fourth  the  sage  Markandeya  is  about  to  be 
carried  off  by  the  king  of  death  (Yama),  when  he  grasps  Siva's 
Liriga  and  saves  himself.  A  fifth  represents  the  story  of  Kala- 
hasta,  a  pious  forester  who  habitually  did  homage  to  Siva 
with  offerings  of  flowers.  One  day  having  forgotten  his  usual 
oblation  he  without  a  moment's  hesitation  tore  out  one  of  his 
own  eyes  from  its  socket,  and  having  offered  it  was  proceeding 
to  take  out  the  other,  when  Siva  prevented  him. 

The  second  side  temple  is  an  oblong  chamber  containing  an 
image  of  ParvatI  at  the  further  end,  with  lights  always  burning 
in  front.  Near  the  entrance  is  a  representation  of  Parvatl's 
darpana  or  mirror.  On  one  of  the  walls  is  a  remarkable 
picture  of  a  large  Lihga  with  the  serpent  Sesha  forming  a 
canopy  over  it. 

To  describe  all  the  principal  Saiva  temples  of  India  would 
require  volumes.  One  thousand  and  eight  are  said  to  exist, 
one  for  each  of  the  one  thousand  and  eight  names  of  the  god, 
but  of  these  only  one  hundred  and  eight  arc  regarded  as 
important. 

'  He  was  a  model  ascetic,  and  fasted  so  continuously  that  he  became 
not  only  emaciated,  but  an  actual  living  skeleton.  He  is  so  represented 
in  the  sculptures  of  the  caves  of  Elephanta  near  Bombay. 


442         Temples  and  Sacred  Places.     Madura. 

Of  the  others  which  I  visited,  the  temples  at  Madura, 
Ramesvara,  Trichinopoly,  Kaiijlvaram,  Tinnevelly,  and  the 
shrine  of  Kapalcsvara  at  Nasik  (one  of  the  oldest),  appeared 
to  me  most  worthy  of  note. 

At  the  Madura  temple  Siva  is  worshipped  as  Sundaresvara, 
a  name  given  to  him  as  the  husband  of  Mlnakshi  (corrupted 
into  Minaci),  the  deified  daughter  of  a  Pandya  king^. 

A  very  extensive  and  imposing  series  of  shrines,  passages, 
and  galleries,  including  a  thousand-pillared  open  hall  of  great 
beauty,  constitute  the  temple.  These  are  enclosed  by  a  high 
wall,  inside  of  which  and  encircling  the  interior  building  is  an 
open  road  or  way  for  the  benefit  of  pious  persons  who  use  it  for 
reverential  circumambulation  (pradakshina)  round  the  sacred 
shrine.  Two  lofty  Gopuras  form  the  entrance  to  the  temple, 
each  leading  by  long  corridors  to  the  two  principal  shrines. 
That  on  the  left  leads  to  the  shrine  of  Mlnakshi  (commonly 
called  Minaci) ;  that  on  the  right  terminates  with  the  Lihga 
shrine.  It  is  noteworthy  that  near  the  latter  are  images  of 
the  five  Pandava  princes  who  are  generally  connected  with 
the  worship  of  Krishna^.  Various  interesting  carvings  and 
sculptured  figures  are  in  the  neighbouring  corridors.  It  is 
evident  that  Mlnakshi  is  the  real  popular  deity  of  the  dis- 
trict, and  that  in  the  estimation  of  the  inhabitants  of  Madura 
her  consort  Siva  is  quite  secondary. 

I  happened  accidentally  to  witness  a  festival  held  in  her 
honour  called  Tailotsava,  '  the  oil  festival.'  A  coarse  image  of 
the  goddess,  profusely  decorated  with  jewels  and  having  a  high 
head-dress  of  hair,  was  carried  in  the  centre  of  a  long  proces- 


^  The  temple  is  commonly  called  the  Minakshi-sundaresvara  pagoda, 
the  wife's  name  being  placed  first,  as  it  generally  is  in  other  cases  also 
(see  p.  184).  The  legend  is  that  MinakshT  was  born  with  three  breasts, 
but  one  disappeared  on  meeting  with  her  future  husband  Siva.  She  was 
then  converted  into  a  local  goddess  of  great  celebrity. 

"^  This  is  an  evidence  of  the  tolerant  spirit  which  marks  Hinduism. 
Where  Saivism  got  the  better  of  Vaishnavism  in  the  South,  the  Vaishnava 
ornaments  were  respected  and  allowed  to  remain  in  Saiva  temples. 


Temples  and  Sacred  Places.     Ramcsiara.      443 

sion  on  a  canopied  throne  borne  by  eit^ht  Brahnians  to  a 
platform  in  tlic  magnificent  hall  or  Mandapa  of  the  Tirumeil 
Nayak  opposite  the  temple.  There  the  ceremony  of  undress- 
ing tlic  idol,  removing  its  ornaments,  anointing  its  head  with 
oil,  bathing,  redecorating  and  redressing  it  was  gone  through 
amid  shouting,  singing,  beating  of  tom-toms,  waving  of  lights 
and  cowries,  ringing  of  bells,  and  deafening  discord  from 
forty  or  fifty  so-called  musical  instruments,  each  played  by 
a  man  who  did  his  best  to  overpower  the  sound  of  all  the 
others  combined.  At  the  head  of  the  procession  was  borne 
an  image  of  Ganesa.  Then  followed  three  elephants,  a  long 
line  of  priests,  musicians,  attendants  bearing  cowries  and  um- 
brellas, with  a  troop  of  dancing  girls  bringing  up  the  rear. 

No  sight  I  witnessed  in  India  made  me  more  sick  at  heart 
than  this.  It  furnished  a  sad  example  of  the  utterly  debasing 
character  of  the  idolatry  w^hich,  notwithstanding  the  counter- 
acting influences  of  education  and  Christianity,  still  enslaves 
the  masses  of  the  population,  deadening  their  intellects,  cor- 
rupting their  imaginations,  warping  their  affections,  perverting 
their  consciences,  and  disfiguring  the  fair  soil  of  a  beautiful 
country  with  hideous  images  and  practices  unsanctioned  even 
by  their  own  most  ancient  sacred  works. 

Probably  the  Ramesvara  temple  ranks  next  to  those  of 
Tanjore  and  Madura  in  point  of  magnificence,  and  to  those  of 
Benares  in  point  of  sanctity.  It  is  situated  at  a  remote 
corner  of  the  island  of  Ramesvara — a  small  island  about  eight 
miles  long  by  four  broad — which,  with  the  coral  reef  stretch- 
ing out  for  twenty-one  miles  from  its  furthest  extremity  and 
often  appearing  like  a  broken  bridge  above  the  sea\  nearly 
connects  India  with  Manaar  and  Ceylon.  The  journey  to  this 
shrine  caused  me  more  discomfort  and  fatigue  than  any  other 
part  of  my  travels. 

^  The  natives  still  believe  this  to  be  the  remains  of  the  bridjje  formed  by 
Ilanuman  and  Rama's  army  of  monkeys,  when  lie  invaded  Ceylon  for 
the  recovery  of  his  wife  Sita  (see  Indian  Wisdom,  p.  358;. 


444      Temples  and  Sacred  Places.     Ramesvara. 

Starting  from  Ramnad  a  vast  sandy  waste  has  to  be  tra- 
versed in  bullock  carts  (called  bandies)  before  this  sacred 
island  can  be  reached.  Yet  thousands  of  pilgrims  walk  the 
whole  distance  from  Benares  and  from  all  parts  of  India. 
And  perhaps  such  a  journey  is  the  most  meritorious  act  a 
Hindu  can  perform.  Not  that  an  enormous  store  of  merit 
(punya)  may  not  be  accumulated  by  simply  visiting  Rame- 
svara, but  that  such  a  store  is  as  nothing  compared  to  what 
may  be  obtained  by  going  first  to  Benares  '  the  resplendent.' 

In  fact,  if  a  man  wish  for  the  perfection  of  bliss  hereafter, 
he  has  only  one  course  open  to  him.  He  must  first  journey 
to  Benares,  there  go  through  at  least  a  hundred  ceremonies 
at  a  hundred  shrines  in  the  sacred  circle  surrounding  the 
centre  of  the  city,  pay  large  fees  to  the  Brahmans  at  innu- 
merable temples,  and  especially  pour  plenty  of  Ganges  water 
over  the  symbol  of  Siva  at  the  Visvesvara  shrine.  Then  he 
must  fill  a  jar  with  more  holy  water  from  the  Ganges,  and  toil 
with  it  on  foot  through  dust  and  sand  for  about  twelve  hun- 
dred miles  to  Ramesvara.  There  the  sacred  water  is  to  be 
poured  over  the  symbol  of  Siva  with  the  certainty  of  securing 
complete  beatitude  hereafter,  provided  the  act  of  bathing 
the  symbol  is  accompanied  by  sufficient  payment  to  the 
Brahmans,  and  provided  that  the  whole  process  is  wound 
up  by  a  bath  in  the  sea  at  Dhanush-koti,  a  little  further  on, 
with,  of  course,  further  fees  to  the  attendant  priests. 

Shortly  before  my  arrival  at  the  temple  a  father  and  son 
had  just  completed  their  self-imposed  task,  and  after  months 
of  hard  walking  succeeded  in  transporting  their  precious 
burden  of  Ganges  water  to  the  other  side  of  the  channel. 
The  longed-for  goal  was  nearly  reached  and  the  temple  of 
Ramesvara  already  in  sight,  when  the  father  died  suddenly 
on  the  road,  leaving  his  son,  a  mere  child,  utterly  destitute 
and  unprotected. 

The  boy,  however,  had  one  treasure  left— his  jar  of  Ganges 
water.      This,  if  only  it   could    be   poured  upon  the  sacred 


Temples  and  Sacred  Places,     yambukesvara.     445 

symbol,  would  prove  a  complete  panacea  fir  all  his  carllil)' 
troubles.  Eagerly  he  grasped  his  burden  once  more  and 
hurried  on  to  the  shrine.  Imagine  the  child's  outburst  of 
passionate  grief  when  the  door  was  closed  against  him.  lie 
had  no  fee  for  the  presiding  priest. 

The  temple  of  Ramesvara  itself  is  a  vast  oblong 
structure  containing  an  immense  collection  of  Linga  shrines, 
open  halls,  and  tanks  surrounded  by  long  and  beautiful 
galleries  and  corridors,  one  entrance  to  which  is  from  the 
small  town  of  Ramesvara  and  the  other  from  the  sea-shore. 
The  principal  sanctuary  or  Garbha  is  well  secluded  and  care- 
fully protected  from  all  unhallowed  eyes  in  the  centre  of  the 
structure.  It  contains  the  celebrated  Linga  set  up  by  Rama 
after  his  return  from  Ceylon  (Lanka). 

The  legend  is  that,  anxious  to  expiate  the  impurity  con- 
tracted by  the  slaughter  of  Rfivana  in  the  great  battle  which 
terminated  in  the  demon's  death,  Rama  despatched  Hanuman 
to  bring  a  Linga  from  Benares  that  he  might  erect  a  shrine 
over  it  and  so  propitiate  Siva.  But  the  monkey-god  was  so 
long  in  executing  the  commission  that  Slta  prepared  a  Linga 
of  sand  with  her  own  hands,  and  Rama  having  then  and  there 
performed  the  ceremony  of  setting  it  up  (pratishtha)  and 
consecrating  it,  proceeded  to  worship  it.  He  then  bathed  in 
the  sea  from  the  neighbouring  promontory  at  a  spot  which 
was  afterwards  called  Thanush-kodi  (Dhanush-koti),  because 
marked  by  the  corner  of  his  bow.  Hence  a  visit  to  this  spot 
is  essential  to  a  completely  meritorious  performance  of  the 
Ramesvara  pilgrimage. 

The  Saiva  temple  at  Trichinopoly  is  dedicated  to  Siva  in 
his  character  of  Jambukesvara,  lord  of  the  Jambu  tree  ^  It 
is  not  far  distant  from  the  celebrated  Srlraii^am  Vaishnava 
pagoda  described  at  p.  447.  The  Jambukesvara  temple 
is   one   of  the    most    important   and    interesting   shrines    in 

^  The  connexion  of  Siva  worship  with  tree  and  serpent  worship  seemed 
to  me  traceable  everywhere  in  Southern  India  (compare  p.  331). 


446     Temples  and  Sacred  Places.     Kanjivaram. 

India.  No  one  could  fail  to  be  impressed  with  its  beautiful 
colonnades,  cloisters,  and  thousand-pillared  Mandapa,  though 
when  I  visited  it  in  1877  it  was  in  a  somewhat  decaying  con- 
dition. In  the  central  court  of  the  temple  is  a  metal  column 
(stambha)  supporting  a  flag  (dhvaja)  \  and  near  it  is  the 
Jambu  tree  over  which  Siva  is  supposed  to  preside. 

The  chief  object  of  worship  is  a  stone  Liriga,  always  kept 
under  water  and  thence  called  the  Ap-lihga.  The  Pandits 
informed  me  that  four  other  celebrated  Liriga-shrincs  in  India 
represent  the  remaining  four  elements — fire,  air,  earth,  and 
ether  ^,  all  of  which  are  believed  to  be  manifestations  of  Siva 
(compare  p.  85). 

At  Kanjivaram  (the  ancient  Kancl),  one  of  the  most  sacred 
places  in  India  ^  not  far  distant  from  Madras,  there  are  two 
principal  temples  at  opposite  ends  of  the  town,  one  dedicated 
to  Vishnu  (as  Varada-raja),  the  other  to  Siva.  Both  were 
visited  by  me,  and  both  I  found  to  be  striking  examples  of 
South  Indian  architecture,  containing  a  very  considerable 
collection  of  imposing  buildings  within  their  exterior  walls. 
According  to  a  local  legend  the  goddess  ParvatI  once  per- 
formed penance  under  a  mango-tree  (amra)  on  the  spot 
where  the  Saiva  temple  now  stands.  There  her  husband 
Siva  appeared  to  her,  and  there  he  is  worshipped  as  Ekamra- 
natha,  '  the  peerless  lord  of  the  mango ''.' 

The  Tinnevelly  Saiva  temple  is  also  highly  interesting  and 
instructive.  Siva  is  here  again  worshipped  in  connexion  with 
a  sacred  tree,  the  Vata  or  Banian  tree,  whence  his  name 
Vatesvara,  'lord  of  the  Vata-tree  ^ ; '  but  here,  as  at  Madura,  his 

'  A  similar  column  is  in  other  South  Indian  shrines. 

■•^  They  are  called  the  Tejo-linga,  Vayu-linga,  Prithivi-linga,  and  Akasa- 
lihga  respectively. 

^  It  is  enumerated  among  the  seven  most  sacred  places. 

*  So  he  was  described  to  me  by  a  Pandit  in  the  temple.  Otherwise  his 
name  might  literally  be  'lord  of  the  one  mango.' 

^  Here  is  another  instance  of  Siva's  association  with  trees  (compare 
p.  331).  The  Pandits  who  took  me  round  the  temple  described  the  god  as 


Temples  and  Sacred  Places.     Si  i-raiigam.     447 

wife  Parvatl,  who  has  a  shrine  on  the  left  side  of  the  temple, 
under  the  name  of  Kantimatl,  '  the  lovely  one,'  is  the  most 
popular  object  of  adoration  ^  The  Lihga  of  Siva,  in  a 
kind  of  holy  of  holies  in  this  temple,  is  very  sacred.  The 
approach  to  it  is  by  a  long  corridor ;  but  the  sanctuary  itself 
is  not  visible  at  the  end  of  the  vista.  It  is  protected  by  three 
other  approaches  or  vestibules,  each  increasing  in  sanctity 
(called  the  Ghanta-mandapa,  the  Maha-mandapa,  and  the 
Arddha-mandapa),  into  none  of  which  was  I  permitted  to  enter. 

The  Lihga  is,  of  course,  never  moved  from  its  place  in  the 
penetralia  of  the  temple,  but  an  image  of  Siva,  called  the 
Utsava-murti,  is  carried  about  in  procession  on  certain  festival 
days,  especially  when  the  annual  ceremony  of  marrying  the 
god  and  the  goddess  is  performed  every  October.  The  god 
of  love  (Kama-deva)  and  his  wife  Rati  have  also  images  in 
this  temple,  and  a  festival  is  held  in  their  honour  every 
spring.  Two  magnificent  open  halls — one  with  a  thousand 
columns,  the  other  with  a  hundred  and  eight — a  tank,  a  beau- 
tiful garden,  and  a  grove  of  palms  are  all  contained  within  the 
enclosure  of  the  temple. 

Without  adverting  further  to  the  temple  of  the  Kapalcsvara 
form  of  Siva  at  Nasik  (p.  442),  which  I  visited  in  1875,  I 
conclude  this  chapter  by  a  brief  account  of  a  Vaishnava 
temple,  selecting  the  most  noteworthy  and  striking  of  all, 
that  of  SrI-rahgam  at  Trichinopoly. 

This  remarkable  structure^  or  collection  of  structures,  con- 
tains in  one  of  its  courts  a  shrine  of  Ramanuja,  the  great 
Vaishnava  teacher  (p.  119),  who  is  supposed  to  have  lived 
here  for  a  considerable  time  before  his  death.  SrI-rahgam  is, 
indeed,  rather  a  sacred  city  than  a  temple.  Hundreds  of 
Brahmans  dwell  within  its  precincts,  thousands  of  pilgrims 

Salivatlsvara  (or  in  Tamil,  Nel  vellf-natha).  I  was  informed  that,  at  a 
sacred  shrine  south  of  the  Vindhya,  Siva  is  worshipped  as  Draksharame- 
svara,  '  lord  of  the  vineyard.' 

'  Live  parrots  and  cockatoos  are  hung  before  her  shrine  as  ofTcrings, 
just  as  before  the  shrine  of  MinakshI  at  the  Madura  temple. 


44S     Temples  a7id  Sacred  Places.     Sri-rahgam. 

throng  its  streets,  and  on  great  anniversaries  myriads  of  wor- 
shippers crowd  its  corridors,  and  press  towards  its  sanctuary. 
No  sight  is  to  be  seen  in  any  part  of  India  that  can  at  all 
compare  with  the  unique  effect  produced  by  its  series  of  seven 
quadrangular  enclosures  formed  by  seven  squares  of  massive 
walls,  one  within  the  other — every  square  pierced  by  four 
lofty  gateways,  and  each  gateway  surmounted  by  pyramidal 
towers  rivalling  in  altitude  the  adjacent  rock  of  Trichinopoly. 

The  construction  of  this  marvellous  congeries  of  sacred 
buildings  must  have  cost  millions  of  rupees,  and  since  its  first 
construction  fabulous  sums  have  been  spent  on  its  main- 
tenance and  enlargement.  It  is  said  that  kings  and  princes 
have  emptied  their  coffers  and  given  up  their  revenues  for 
the  completion  and  extension  of  its  many-storied  towers  ; 
rich  men  of  every  rank  have  parted  with  their  treasures 
for  the  adding  of  column  after  column  to  its  thousand- 
pillared  courts  ;  misers  have  yielded  up  their  hoards  for 
the  decoration  of  its  jewelled  images  ;  capitalists  have  be- 
queathed vast  benefactions  for  the  support  of  its  priests ; 
architects  and  artists  have  exhausted  all  their  resources  for 
the  production  of  a  perfect  shrine,  the  worthy  receptacle  of 
an  idol  of  transcendent  glory. 

The  idea  is  that  each  investing  square  of  walls  shall  form 
courts  of  increasing  sanctity  which  shall  conduct  the  wor- 
shipper by  regular  gradations  to  a  central  holy  of  holies 
of  unique  shape  and  proportions.  In  fact,  the  entire  fabric  of 
shrines,  edifices,  towers,  and  enclosures  is  supposed  to  be  a 
terrestrial  counterpart  of  Vishnu's  heaven  (Vaikuntha),  to 
which  his  votaries  are  destined  to  be  transported. 

The  idol  itself  is  recumbent,  and  its  legendary  history  is 
curious.  When  Rama  dismissed  his  ally  Vibhishana — the 
brother  of  the  conquered  demon  Ravana  who  had  carried  off 
Sita  to  Ceylon — he  gave  him,  out  of  gratitude  for  his  services, 
a  golden  idol  of  Vishnu,  with  instructions  not  to  lay  it  down 
till  he  had  reached  home.     Vibhishana  accordingly  set  out  on 


Temples  and  Sacred  Places.     Sri-rahi^ayn.     449 

his  return  to  Ceylon,  taking  the  precious  image  with  him. 
Passing  near  Sri-raiigam,  and  wishing  to  bathe  in  the  sacred 
tank,  he  gave  the  image  to  one  of  his  followers,  charging  him 
to  hold  it  upright,  and  on  no  account  to  let  it  pass  out  of  his 
hands.  But  VibhTshana  was  so  long  over  his  ablutions,  that 
the  holder  of  the  image,  finding  its  weight  insupportable, 
deposited  it  on  the  ground,  intending  to  take  it  up  again 
before  Vibhlshana's  return.  The  dismay  of  all  parties  con- 
cerned was  great  when  they  discovered  that  the  idol  obsti- 
nately declined  to  be  removed  from  its  comfortable  position. 
It  had,  therefore,  to  be  left  in  a  recumbent  attitude,  and  a 
shrine  was  built  over  it,  shaped  liked  the  sacred  monosyllable 
Om,  supposed  to  be  a  combination  of  the  three  letters 
A,  U,  M,  mystically  significant  of  the  Supreme  Being's  three 
principal  manifestations,  Brahma,  Vishnu,  and  Siva.  On  the 
summit  of  the  shrine  were  placed  four  pinnacles  to  denote  the 
four  Vedas,  and  around  it  were  constructed  seven  walls  built 
in  squares,  one  within  the  other,  and  forming  seven  quad- 
rangular courts,  figuring  the  seven  divisions  or  degrees  of  bliss 
in  Vishnu's  heaven. 

Of  course  the  original  idol  of  Vishnu  is  supposed  to  be  still 
immovable ;  but  another  image  has  been  consecrated  (called 
the  utsava-vigraha),  which  is  carried  about  in  processions  on 
certain  anniversaries — such,  for  example,  as  the  car-festival, 
when  the  enormous  car,  attached  to  every  Vaishnava  temple 
in  Southern  India,  is  dragged  through  the  streets  of  the  town 
by  thousands  of  men. 

The  dress,  decorations,  and  jewelry  belonging  to  this  port- 
able idol  were  all  exhibited  to  mc.  I  saw  the  idol-crown 
covered  with  diamonds,  pearls,  and  rubies — worth  at  least 
eighty  thousand  rupees — with  a  breastplate,  ornaments  for 
the  feet,  and  necklace,  worth  at  least  eighty  thousand  rupees 
more. 

In  the  centre  of  the  inner  wall  of  the  temple,  near  the 
interior  shrine  on  the  north    side,  is  a  narrow  door  called 


450     Temples  and  Saord  Places.     Sri-raiigam. 

heaven's  gate.  I  happened  to  visit  Srl-rangam  at  the  time 
of  the  annual  festival  celebrated  on  the  27th  of  December. 
This  is  the  one  day  in  the  year  on  which  the  gate  is  opened, 
and  on  the  occasion  of  my  visit  the  opening  took  place  at 
four  o'clock  in  the  morning.  First  the  idol — bedecked  and 
bejewelled  to  the  full — was  borne  through  the  narrow  portal, 
followed  by  eighteen  images  of  Vaishnava  saints  and  devotees; 
then  came  innumerable  priests  chanting  Vedic  hymns  and 
repeating  the  thousand  names  of  Vishnu ;  then  dancing  girls 
and  bands  of  musicians — the  invariable  attendants  upon  idol- 
shrines  in  the  South  of  India.  Finally,  a  vast  throng — pro- 
bably fifty  thousand  persons — crowded  for  hours  through  the 
contracted  passage,  amid  deafening  shouts  and  vociferations, 
beating  of  drums,  and  discordant  sounds  of  all  kinds  of  music. 

Not  a  single  human  being  passed  through  that  strait  and 
narrow  portal  without  presenting  offerings  to  the  idol,  and 
gifts  to  the  priests.  Many,  doubtless,  joined  the  surging 
throng  from  a  vague  sense  of  duty,  or  because  their  fathers 
and  grandfathers  had  joined  it  from  time  immemorial ;  but 
the  motive  which  actuated  the  majority  was  a  firm  conviction 
that  the  passage  of  the  earthly  heaven's  gate,  kept  by  the 
priests,  and  unlocked  at  their  bidding,  would  be  a  sure  pass- 
port to  Vishnu's  heaven  after  death. 

I  may  mention  in  conclusion  that  most  of  the  South  Indian 
temples  are  sufficiently  well  endowed  to  maintain  a  band  of 
musicians.  That  of  Tanjore  has  fifty.  The  number  and 
variety  of  their  musical  instruments  struck  me  as  extra- 
ordinary, though  the  resulting  sounds  at  the  time  of  morning 
and  evening  service,  when  a  noisy  orchestra  is  thought  to  con- 
tribute largely  to  the  merit  of  the  homage  paid  to  the  deity, 
are  productive,  at  least  to  European  ears,  of  excruciating 
discord. 

All  the  temples  also  maintain  troops  of  dancing  girls. 
The  Tanjore  temple  possesses  fifteen,  ten  of  whom  danced 
before  me  in  the  court  of  the  temple  with  far  livelier  move- 


Temples  and  Sacred  Places.     Sri-rahc^ani.     451 

merits  than  are  customary  among  the  Nach  girls  of  Western 
and  Northern  India.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  dancing 
in  the  East  was  once  exclusively  connected  with  religious 
devotion,  especially  with  homage  paid  to  Siva  in  his  character 
of  lord  of  dancing  (see  p.  84).  Further,  it  is  well-known  that 
in  ancient  times  women  were  dedicated  to  the  service  of  the 
temples,  like  the  Vestal  virgins  of  Europe.  They  were  held 
to  be  married  to  the  god,  and  had  no  other  duty  but  to  dance 
before  his  shrine.  Hence  they  were  called  the  god's  slaves 
(deva-dasi),  and  were  generally  patterns  of  piety  and  pro- 
priety. In  the  present  day  they  are  still  called  by  the  same 
name,  but  are  rather  slaves  to  the  licentious  passions  of  the 
profligate  Brfdimans  of  the  temples  to  which  they  belong. 

What  surprised  me  most  was  the  number  and  weight  of 
their  ornaments,  especially  in  the  case  of  those  attached  to 
the  temples  in  Southern  India.  Some  wore  nose-rings  and 
finger-rings  glittering  with  rubies  and  pearls.  Their  ears 
were  pierced  all  round  and  filled  with  costly  ear-rings.  Their 
limbs  were  encumbered  with  bangles,  anklets,  armlets,  toe- 
rings,  necklaces,  chain-ornaments,  head-ornaments,  and  the 
like.  One  of  the  Tanjore  girls  informed  me  that  she  had  been 
recently  robbed  of  jewels  to  the  value  of  Rs.  25,000.  All 
this  proves  that  they  drive  a  profitable  trade  under  the 
sanction  of  religion. 

Some  Indian  courtezans  have  been  known  to  amass  enor- 
mous fortunes.  Nor  do  they  think  it  inconsistent  with  their 
method  of  making  money  to  spend  it  in  works  of  piety  and 
benevolence.  Here  and  there  Indian  bridges  and  other  useful 
public  works  were  pointed  out  to  me,  which  owe  their  exist- 
ence to  the  liberality  of  some  well-known  members  of  the 
frail  sisterhood. 


Q  g  2 


CHAPTER    XVIII. 
Caste  in  relation   to  Trades  and  Industries. 

In  India,  caste,  custom,  and  industrial  occupations  are  not 
only  closely  connected  with  one  another,  they  are  all  three 
intimately  bound  up  with  religious  thought  and  life. 

According  to  the  last  Census^  the  Queen's  Indian  Empire 
now  possesses  more  than  252  millions  of  inhabitants,  or  at 
least  one-sixth  part  of  the  whole  human  race,  and  its 
foreign  trade  amounts  to  124  million  pounds  sterling,  or 
nearly  ten  shillings  per  head  of  the  population.  Whereas 
the  population  of  the  United  Kingdom  amounts  to  only 
thirty-five  millions,  and  the  foreign  trade  is  to  the  annual 
value  of  697  million  pounds  sterling,  or  more  than  £20  per 
head  of  the  population.  On  the  above  difference  of  figures 
an  assertion  has  been  founded  that  India  is  a  poor  country. 
But  is  this  exactly  the  case?  During  two  journeys  through 
the  length  and  breadth  of  the  land  I  myself  witnessed  abun- 
dant instances  of  extreme  poverty  among  the  people,  but  on 
each  occasion  I  returned  to  England  convinced  that  India 
is  one  of  the  most  productive  countries  of  the  globe.  Her 
material  resources,  her  potential  wealth,  are  incalculable. 

India  is,  in  fact,  a  small  world  in  itself.  India  can  offer 
you  a  specimen  of  every  form  of  climate.      She  can  scorch 

^  This  chapter  was  originally  delivered  as  a  lecture  at  the  London 
Institution  and  Ventnor,  and  illustrated  by  specimens  of  Indian  industry 
lent  by  Her  Majesty  and  by  the  South  Kensington  Museum. 


Cask  in  relation  to   Trades  ajid  Industries.    453 

you  with  heat  or  shrivel  you  with  cold.  She  can  present  to 
your  gaze  every  imaginable  physical  feature  of  plain  and 
desert,  river  and  torrent,  fen  and  forest,  hill  and  dale,  rich 
field  and  barren  waste,  dark  crag  and  snow-white  peak  tower- 
ing to  twice  the  altitude  of  the  loftiest  Swiss  mountains.  She 
can  excite  your  wonder  by  ten  thousand  varieties  of  animal 
and  plant  life.  She  can  enrich  you  with  gold  and  precious 
ores,  with  diamonds  and  precious  stones,  with  coal  and  iron. 
She  can  pour  out  before  you  wheat  and  grain  of  all  kinds,  oil 
and  sugar,  tea  and  coffee,  tobacco  and  opium,  perfumes  and 
spices,  every  conceivable  species  of  vegetable  and  mineral 
produce.  She  can  clothe  you  in  soft  vestments  of  silk,  wool, 
cotton,  cambric,  and  embroidery.  She  can  call  forth  your 
admiration  by  matchless  examples  of  industrial  and  decora- 
tive art,  of  unrivalled  manual  skill,  of  consummate  taste  and 
dexterity  displayed  in  every  kind  of  manufacture — every  kind 
of  useful  and  ornamental  article.  And  let  us  not  forget  that 
India  had  not  only  attained  a  high  degree  of  commercial 
eminence  and  industrial  skill,  but  had  besides  made  great 
advances  in  science  and  philosophy  when  our  ancestors  were 
half-naked  savages.  The  Old  Testament  affords  clear  evi- 
dence of  the  great  antiquity  of  Indian  trade.  Moses,  1500 
years  before  Christ,  mentions  various  Indian  products  — 
bdellium,  myrrh,  cinnamon,  onyx,  diamonds.  In  the  Rig- 
veda  (composed  about  the  time  of  Moses)  the  god  Tvashtri 
is  described  as  a  skilful  workman,  a  divine  artisan.  He  was 
a  kind  of  Indian  Vulcan.  He  made  the  chariots  and  imple- 
ments of  the  gods,  and  taught  three  semi-divine  beings  called 
Ribhus,  who  were  also  skilled  workmen.  Other  trades  and 
occupations  are  also  mentioned  in  the  Veda ;  for  example, 
those  of  the  carpenter,  blacksmith,  weaver,  rope-maker, 
leather-worker,  boat-builder,  ship-builder,  agriculturist,  phy- 
sician. 

And  yet,  notwithstanding  all  her  vast  potentiality  of  wealth, 
all  her  ancient  superiority  in   arts,  sciences,  and   industries, 


454    Caste  in  relation  to   Trades  and  Industries. 

carried  back  through  countless  generations  for  at  least  '>,S^o 
years,  it  is  impossible  to  deny  that  India  has  never  advanced 
beyond  a  certain  point,  and  that  she  is  at  present  both 
scientifically  and  commercially  left  far  behind  by  European 
nations.  Let  us  go  back  to  the  beginning.  Let  us  try  to 
trace  the  causes  which  first  promoted  and  then  impeded  the 
development  of  her  trades  and  industries. 

We  must  bear  in  mind   that   the   first  Aryan   settlers   on 
Indian  soil  were  all  tillers  of  the  land.     Parties  of  immigrants 
from    Central   Asia    gained    possession    of    fertile    tracts   in 
Northern   India  and   formed  themselves  into  separate  agri- 
cultural communities.     Soon  the  richness  of  the  soil  on  the 
plains  of  the  Indus  and  the  Ganges  enabled  them  to  support 
a  considerable  surplus  population.      New  wants  arose  with 
the  gradual  growth  of  the  community.     Soldiers  were  needed 
to  fight  their  battles,  watchmen  to  protect  their  crops,  priests 
to  perform  their  religious  duties,  weavers  to  weave  their  gar- 
ments, artisans    to   supply  them  with    common    articles    of 
every-day  use.     Hence  arose  social  organization,  with  a  com- 
plete system  of  division  of  labour.     To  every  man  his  distinct 
place,  work,  rank,  and  remuneration  were  assigned.     Hence, 
too,  every  member  of  the  body  so  constituted  acquired  great 
skill   in  his  own  particular    craft,   and   took  a  pride  in  con- 
tinually improving  it.    This  skill  and  these  feelings  of  pride  he 
transmitted  to  his  children,  by  whom  again  they  were  deve- 
loped and  intensified.     In  this  manner  a  strong  esprit  de  corps 
was  generated,  and  associations  of  persons  engaged  in  the 
same  occupations  were  ultimately  formed,  each  of  which  fenced 
itself  round  with  rules  and  regulations  necessary  for  the  pro- 
tection of  its  own  rights  and  privileges. 

These  associations  are  called  by  us  'castes,'  a  word  bor- 
rowed from  the  Portuguese.  Caste  and  occupation  were  for- 
merly convertible  terms.  The  number  of  these  trade-castes 
is  in  the  present  day  quite  incalculable.  There  seems  to 
be   no  limit  to  their  formation.     New  ones  are  continually 


Casie  in  relation  to   Trades  and  Industries.    455 

forming.  Old  ones  arc  continually  passing  away.  Even 
to  enumerate  their  names  would  be  impossible,  but  they 
have  all  grown  out  of  the  primitive  constitution  of  village 
communities. 

And  here  I  may  observe  that  no  circumstance  in  the 
history  of  India  is  more  worthy  of  investigation  than  the 
antiquity  and  permanence  of  her  village  and  municipal  institu- 
tions. The  importance  of  the  study  lies  in  the  light  thereby 
thrown  on  the  parcelling  out  of  rural  society  into  autonomous 
divisions,  like  those  of  our  own  English  parishes,  wherever 
Aryan  races  have  occupied  the  soil  in  Asia  or  in  h^urope. 
The  Indian  village  or  township,  meaning  thereby  not  merely 
a  collection  of  houses  forming  a  village  or  town,  but  a  division 
of  territory,  perhaps  three  or  four  square  miles  or  more  in 
extent,  with  its  careful  distribution  of  fixed  occupations  for 
the  common  good,  with  its  intertwining  and  inter-dependence 
of  individual,  family,  and  communal  interests,  with  its  perfect 
provision  for  political  independence  and  autonomy,  is  the 
original  type — the  first  germ  of  all  the  divisions  of  rural 
and  civic  society  in  medieval  and  modern  Europe.  It  has 
existed  almost  unaltered  since  the  first  description  of  its 
organization  in  the  code  of  Manu,  five  centuries  before  the 
Christian  era.  It  has  survived  all  the  religious,  political,  and 
physical  convulsions  from  which  India  has  suffered  from  time 
immemorial.  Invader  after  invader  has  ravaged  the  country 
with  fire  and  sword  ;  internal  wars  have  carried  devastation 
into  every  corner  of  the  land  ;  tyrannical  oppressors  have 
desolated  its  homesteads;  famine  has  decimated  its  peasantry; 
pestilence  has  depopulated  entire  districts ;  floods  and  earth- 
quakes have  changed  the  face  of  nature  ;  folly,  superstition, 
and  delusion  have  made  havoc  of  all  religion  and  morality — 
but  the  simple,  self-contained  Indian  township  has  preserved 
its  constitution  intact,  its  customs,  precedents,  and  peculiar 
institutions  unchanged  and  unchangeable  amid  all  other 
changes. 


456    Caste  in  relation  to  Trades  and  Inditstries. 

Let  us  endeavour  to  draw  a  picture  of  one  of  these  Indian 
communities.  In  the  first  place  we  must  bear  in  mind  that 
it  consists  mainly  of  tillers  of  the  soil.  At  least  three-fourths 
of  the  whole  body  are  common  field-labourers.  Each  man 
tills  a  small  plot  of  ground  of  his  own,  which  may  vary  in 
extent  according  to  his  position  and  capabilities.  In  some 
parts  of  India  the  cultivators  form  a  separate  caste,  but  as 
a  rule  almost  any  low-caste  man  may  become  a  tiller  of  the 
ground.  The  implements  are  of  the  rudest  kind.  An  Indian 
plough  is  exactly  what  it  was  two  or  three  thousand  years 
ago,  not  unlike  a  thin  anchor,  one  claw  of  which  pierces  the 
ground  while  the  other  is  held  by  the  ploughman.  It  may 
be  carried  on  a  man's  back,  and  scarcely  does  more  than 
scratch  the  soil. 

How,  then,  does  this  body  of  agriculturists  provide  for  the 
management  of  its  own  affairs  and  the  maintenance  of  order 
and  organization?  Each  community  forms  itself  into  a  little 
republic  ;  bound,  however,  to  the  central  Government  by  the 
regular  payment  of  an  assessment  or  tax  on  the  produce. 
The  first  step  is  to  elect  their  Headman  or  President,  who 
is  paid  by  a  fixed  proportion  of  the  land,  and  is  a  kind  of 
mayor  or  civic  magistrate.  He  is  the  chairman  of  the  village 
or  town  council — called  a  panchayat — a  kind  of  local  board, 
which  often  holds  its  sittings  under  a  large  tree.  He  decides 
disputes,  apportions  the  labour  and  the  amount  of  produce 
each  labourer  is  to  receive  as  remuneration,  and  is  responsible 
for  the  annual  proportion  due  to  the  Government.  It  will 
astonish  an  English  workman  to  learn  that  the  amount  of 
grain  required  for  the  support  of  an  adult  man  in  Bengal 
is  only  valued  at  three  shillings  a  month,  and  for  a  woman 
at  eighteen  pence.  A  whole  family  may  be  supported  for 
fourteen  shillings  a  month. 

The  next  important  personage  in  the  community  is  the 
accountant  or  notary,  a  kind  of  local  attorney,  who  transacts 
the  village  business  and  keeps  an  account  of  the  land,  the 


Caste  in  relation  to   Trades  and  Industries.    457 

produce,  the  rents,  and  assessment.  In  some  respects  a  far 
more  important  functionary  than  either  headman  or  notary 
is  the  priest  (purohita),  the  spiritual  head  of  the  society,  who 
performs  all  religious  ceremonies  for  its  members  whether 
at  births,  marriages,  or  deaths,  and  is  supported  by  fixed 
allotments  of  grain,  or  special  offerings  on  solemn  occasions. 
As  a  Brahman  he  may  be  of  higher  caste  than  either  the 
headman  or  notary  (who  are  not  generally  Brahmans),  and 
his  spiritual  power  is  unbounded.  His  anger  is  as  terrible  as 
that  of  the  gods.  His  blessing  makes  rich,  his  curse  withers. 
Nay,  more,  he  is  himself  actually  worshipped  as  a  god. 
No  marvel,  no  prodigy  in  nature  is  believed  to  be  beyond 
the  limits  of  his  power  to  accomplish.  If  the  priest  were 
to  threaten  to  bring  down  the  sun  from  the  sky  or  arrest 
it  in  its  daily  course  in  the  heavens,  no  villager  would  for  a 
moment  doubt  his  ability  to  do  so.  And  indeed  the  priests 
of  India,  in  their  character  of  Brahmans,  claim  to  have  worked 
a  few  notable  miracles  at  different  times  and  on  various 
occasions.  One  of  their  number  once  swallowed  the  ocean 
in  three  sips,  another  manufactured  fire,  another  created  all 
animals,  and  another  turned  the  moon  into  a  cinder.  The 
priest  confers  incalculable  benefits  on  the  community  of  which 
he  is  a  member  by  merely  receiving  their  presents.  A  cow 
given  to  him  secures  heaven  of  a  certainty  to  the  lucky  donor. 
The  consequences  of  injuring  him  are  terrific.  The  man  who 
does  him  the  smallest  harm  must  make  up  his  mind  to  be 
whirled  about  after  death,  for  at  least  a  century,  in  a  hell 
of  total  darkness.  This  will  sufl'ice  to  account  for  the  respect 
paid  to  the  priest  by  the  simple-hearted  peasantry,  who  some- 
times drink  the  water  in  which  his  feet  have  been  washed, 
by  way  of  getting  rid  of  their  sins  with  the  least  possible 
diflliculty. 

Sometimes  the  priest  combines  the  functions  of  village 
astrologer — a  very  necessary  official,  since  the  chief  religion 
of  all   Indian    peasantry  consists   in    a    fear   of   evil    spirits. 


45  S     Caste  in  relatioji  to   Trades  and  Indies  tries. 

witches,  and  devils.  The  astrologer  determines  the  lucky- 
days  for  sowing  and  reaping,  tells  fortunes,  prepares  horo- 
scopes^ and  knows  how  to  counteract  bad  omens — to  avert 
the  evil  consequences  of  an  envious  look,  of  a  sudden 
sneeze,  of  the  yell  of  a  jackal  or  chirping  of  a  lizard.  If  the 
astrologer  also  practises  sorcery  it  becomes  necessary  to 
conciliate  him  by  frequent  gifts ;  for  he  can  cause  diseases 
as  well  as  cure  them,  and  can  destroy  the  life  of  any  one 
who  displeases  him  by  the  simple  repetition  of  magical  texts 
and  spells. 

Then  nearly  every  Indian  village  possesses  a  schoolmaster, 
and  his  functions  also  are  sometimes  united  in  those  of  the 
priest.  In  passing  through  a  large  village  in  Bengal^  I  came 
upon  a  group  of  at  least  fifty  naked  children  squatting  under 
a  tree  near  a  homestead,  some  engaged  in  scratching  the 
letters  of  the  alphabet  on  leaves,  and  some  learning  to  write 
on  the  dust  of  the  ground.  This  was  the  national  school, 
presided  over  by  a  nearly  naked  pedagogue  who,  on  my 
approach,  made  his  pupils  show  off  their  knowledge  of 
arithmetic  before  me,  by  shouting  out  their  multiplication 
table  with  deafening  screams.  It  may  be  noted  as  remark- 
able, that  no  religious  teacher  in  the  native  schools  of  India 
receives  money  for  teaching.  Divine  knowledge  is  too  sacred 
a  thing  to  be  sold.  It  is,  therefore,  nominally  imparted  gratis, 
though  the  teacher  has  no  objection  to  receive  presents  from 
the  parents  on  festive  occasions.  Some  of  the  national  punish- 
ments are  certainly  curious  from  our  point  of  view.  For 
instance,  a  boy  is  condemned  to  stand  for  half-an-hour  on 
one  foot.  Another  is  made  to  sit  on  the  floor  with  one 
leg  turned  up  behind  his  neck.  Another  is  made  to  hang 
for  a  few  minutes  with  his  head  downwards  from  the  branch 
of  a  neighbouring  tree.  Another  is  made  to  bend  down 
and  grasp  his  own  toes  and  remain  in  that  position  for  a 
fixed  period  of  time.  Another  is  made  to  measure  so  many 
cubits  on  the  ground  by  marking  it  with  the  tip  of  his  nose. 


Caste  in  relatioi  to   Trades  and  Industries.    459 

Another  is  made  to  pull  his  own  ears,  and  dilate  them  tc; 
a  given  point  on  pain  of  worse  chastisement.  Two  boys, 
when  both  have  done  wrong,  are  made  to  knock  their  heads 
several  times  against  each  other. 

Amongst  the  most  important  functionaries  of  the  com- 
munity I  ought  to  mention  the  barber,  who  with  the  roughest 
implements  does  his  appointed  work  admirably.  An  Indian 
barber  can  if  he  likes  shave  without  soap.  Shaving  is,  as 
we  have  seen,  a  religious  duty  with  all  Hindus,  but  no  one 
ever  thinks  of  shaving  himself.  He  sends  for  the  barber, 
as  he  would  for  the  priest  or  the  doctor.  Nor  are  this  func- 
tionary's duties  restricted  to  shaving.  He  cuts  the  nails, 
cleans  the  ears,  kneads  the  body,  cracks  the  joints,  and  often 
does  the  work  of  a  homely  surgeon.  The  natives  of  India 
arc  particularly  fond  of  having  their  joints  cracked.  A  rich 
man's  barber  performs  all  these  operations  for  him  every 
day,  and  is  content  with  two  shillings  a  month  wages. 

Next  we  have  the  village  carpenter.  If  you  enter  a  village 
at  early  dawn  you  will  probably  find  him  engaged  in  making 
handles  for  ploughs.  You  will  see  him  saw  as  much  by  the 
help  of  his  feet  as  his  hands;  for  a  Hindu's  toes  are  never 
cramped  or  made  useless  by  tight  shoes,  but  early  begin 
to  assist  his  fingers.  The  ground  is  our  carpenter's  only 
bench,  while  the  tools  he  uses  are  of  the  rudest  kind,  per- 
haps nothing  beyond  a  coarse  saw,  hammer,  plane,  chisel, 
and  wedge. 

Next  look  at  the  village  blacksmith,  he  has  only  a  hammer, 
file,  pair  of  tongs,  and  bellows.  His  forge  is  hollowed  out  of 
the  ground  or  constructed  of  a  few  broken  bricks,  and  his 
only  anvil  is  a  stone.  Sitting  on  his  hams  he  fashions  old 
hoop-iron  into  bill-hooks,  nails,  and  ferrules  for  ploughs. 

Then  there  is  the  cowman,  who  furnishes  the  milk,  curds, 
and  a  kind  of  butter,  but  not  cheese ;  for  cheese  is  an  article 
of  manufacture  quite  unknown  to  the  Hindus.  No  such  trade 
as  that  of  a  cheesemonger  is  to  be  found  throughout  India. 


460     Caste  in  relation  to   Trades  and  Indiistries. 

Again,  in  some  parts  of  India,  behind  the  low  huts  of  the 
irregular  village  street  is  sure  to  be  seen  the  weaver's  loom. 
For  India,  as  Sir  George  Birdwood  has  well  shown,  is  probably 
the  first  of  all  countries  that  perfected  weaving.  The  weaver's 
art  is  alluded  to  in  the  Rig-veda,  1500  years  before  Christ, 
and  as  the  original  source  of  any  textile  fabric  is  often 
indicated  by  its  name,  so  we  find  that  calico  takes  its  name 
from  Calicut,  on  the  western  coast  of  India ;  chintz  from  the 
Sanskrit  citra,  'variegated;'  shawl  from  sala,  'a  hall;' 
just  as  damask  is  from  Damascus,  dimity  from  Damietta, 
muslin  from  Mosul,  nankeen  from  Nankin,  drugget  from 
Drogheda:  The  cotton  thread  used  in  India  is  spun  by 
women  of  all  castes.  They  spin  it  on  a  thin  rod  of  iron  with 
a  ball  of  clay  at  the  end,  but  the  coarser  thread  is  spun  by 
means  of  a  wheel  similar  to  that  of  an  English  spinster. 

Another  useful  functionary  is  the  village  shoemaker.  If 
you  wish  him  to  make  you  a  pair  of  shoes  you  must  pay  him 
in  advance,  that  he  may  first  purchase  a  prepared  hide  from 
the  tanner,  or  prepare  one  himself^  for  he  has  no  stock  of 
leather.  Then  with  a  rough  last,  a  knife  and  an  awl,  he  will 
turn  you  out  a  very  respectable  pair  of  shoes,  if  you  only  give 
him  plenty  of  time. 

Then  on  the  outskirts  of  the  village  is  sure  to  be  established 
another  indispensable  and  much  respected  functionary,  the 
hereditary  potter.  There  he  sits  on  a  slightly  elevated  piece 
of  ground  outside  the  door  of  his  hut  with  his  apparatus  ready 
for  use — the  ideal  of  a  man  who  has  achieved  perfect  mastery 
over  the  mechanism  of  his  fingers,  and  is  conscious  of  the 
power  of  the  human  hand,  as  the  instrument  of  bringing 
beautiful  shapes  within  the  reach  of  the  humblest  cottager. 
The  apparatus  with  which  he  effects  this  object  is  a  simple 
circular  horizontal  well-balanced  fly-wheel,  generally  two  or 
three  feet  in  diameter,  which  can  be  made  to  rotate  for  two 
or  three  minutes  by  a  slight  impulse.  This  he  loads  with 
clay,  and  then  with  a  few  easy  sweeps  and  turns  of  his  hands 


Casle  in  7'clation  to   Trades  and  Industries.    461 

he  moulds  his  material  into  beautiful  curves  and  symmetrical 
shapes,  and  leaves  the  produce  of  his  skill  to  bake  by  them- 
selves in  the  sun.  In  fact,  the  sun  is  the  Indian  workman's 
head  assistant  — nay,  rather,  his  ever-present  benefactor,  from 
whom  he  gets  coals,  candles,  clothing,  and  almost  every 
necessary  of  life,  free  of  all  cost '.  This  relieves  him  from  a 
deadweight  of  care,  and  enables  him  to  give  to  his  work — 
which  in  India  is  always  regarded  as  a  religious  function — that 
placidity  of  mind,  that  pride  and  pleasure  in  it  for  its  own 
sake,  which  are  essential  to  all  artistic  excellence  and  per- 
fection. And  no  man  takes  a  greater  pride  and  pleasure 
in  his  work,  no  man  displays  a  greater  air  of  dignity,  self- 
respect,  and  contentment  than  the  village  potter  (kumbha- 
kara,  corrupted  into  kumbhar).  No  man  furnishes  a  better 
illustration  of  that  excellent  doggerel  of  ours. 

If  I  were  a  cobbler,  it  would  be  my  pride 

The  best  of  all  cobblers  to  be  ; 
If  I  were  a  tinker,  no  tinker  beside 

Should  mend  a  tin-kettle  like  me. 

It  never  enters  into  his  head  to  work  for  merely  mercenary 
motives  or  with  any  idea  of  making  money.  He  simply 
works  because  it  is  his  appointed  duty — the  sacred  duty  for 
which  God  created  him — to  supply  the  villagers  with  as  many 
pots,  pans,  bowls,  and  jars  as  they  need,  and  to  make  them  in 
the  best  and  most  workmanlike  manner  possible.  Nor  does 
his  ambition  ever  soar  above  simple  earthenware.  Such  a 
man  nevgr  dreams  of  aspiring  to  the  manufacture  of  valuable 
china  dishes  or  vessels  and  plates  of  porcelain.  He  has  no 
idea  of  rising  above  the  art  received  from  his  fathers.  One 
reason  for  this  may  be  that  in  India  there  is  no  demand  for 
chinaware.  No  orthodox  Hindu  likes  to  eat  off  anything  but 
plates  of  leaves  freshly  prepared  for  every  meal  and  never 
used  again.     Even  earthenware  dishes  ought  to  be  thrown 

^  All  this,  too,  has  been  shown  by  Sir  George  Birdwood,  C.S.I.,  to 
whose  able  works  on  Indian  art  my  descriptions  are  greatly  indebted. 


462     Caste  hi  relation  to  Trades  and  Industries. 

away  immediately  after  use.  The  great  demand  for  earthen- 
ware vessels  in  India  arises  from  the  impurity  supposed  to  be 
contracted  by  using  any  such  articles  a  second  time.  It  is 
noteworthy  that  during  an  eclipse  the  very  poorest  people 
fling  them  away. 

I  could  go  on  to  speak  of  the  dyer,  the  washerman,  the 
druggist,  the  oilman,  the  water-carrier,  the  watchman,  &c., 
but  it  is  time  we  should  pass  from  villages  to  towns. 

The  towns  of  India  are  often  of  immense  size  and  have 
teeming  populations.  Calcutta  and  Bombay  are  larger  towns 
than  any  in  the  British  Empire  except,  of  course,  London. 
They  have  a  larger  population  than  Manchester  and  Liver- 
pool, and  every  conceivable  kind  of  trade  is  represented  in 
their  streets.  Even  in  the  days  of  Rama,  several  centuries 
B.C.,  the  procession  that  went  out  to  meet  him  from  the 
capital  of  Oudh  included  metal-workers,  copper-smiths,  ivory- 
workers,  crystal-cutters,  glass-makers,  inlayers,  umbrella- 
makers,  perfumers,  hair-dressers,  fishmongers,  musical  instru- 
ment-makers, painters,  distillers,  seedsmen,  gardeners,  partridge 
dealers,  basket-makers,  brick-makers,  plasterers,  architects, 
clothiers,  exorcists,  with  the  headmen  of  guilds  bringing  up 
the  rear.  In  an  ancient  work  (already  alluded  to)  by  a  sage 
named  Vatsyayana  sixty-four  arts  are  enumerated.  Among 
them  are  the  following : — singing;  dancing;  playing  on  musical 
instruments ;  playing  on  musical  glasses  filled  with  water ; 
tattooing ;  colouring  the  teeth,  hair,  and  nails  ;  dyeing  and 
painting  ;  writing  and  drawing ;  scenic  representatiofis,  stage- 
playing  ;  fixing  stained  glass  into  floors  ;  magic  or  sorcery ; 
culinary  art ;  making  lemonades,  sherbets,  and  acidulated 
drinks  ;  practice  with  sword,  single-stick,  quarter-staff,  and 
bow  and  arrow;  carpentry;  architecture;  knowledge  about  gold 
and  silver  coins,  jewels  and  gems;  chemistry  and  mineralogy; 
gardening ;  knowledge  of  treating  the  diseases  of  trees  and 
plants,  of  nourishing  them  and  determining  their  ages ;  cock- 
fighting,  quail-fighting,  and  ram-fighting  ;  teaching  parrots  and 


Caste  in  relation  to   Trades  and  Industries.    463 

Maina  birds  to  speak  ;  knowledge  of  languages  and  vernacular 
dialects ;  obtaining  possession  of  the  property  of  others 
by  means  of  incantations  ;  skill  in  }0uthful  sports  and  gym- 
nastics ;  knowledge  of  the  art  of  war,  arms,  armies,  etc.  ; 
knowledge  of  the  rules  of  society  and  how  to  pay  respects  and 
compliments  to  others  ;  art  of  knowing  the  character  of  a  man 
from  his  features. 

It  is  curious  to  compare  this  ancient  list  with  that  recently 
published  by  the  Indian  Census  Office,  in  which,  among  other 
remarkable  varieties  of  modern  trades,  the  following  are 
enumerated  : — professional  makers  of  speeches,  professional 
ear-cleaners,  vendors  of  drugs  to  promote  digestion,  and 
professional  givers  of  evidence. 

Now,  in  India,  all  who  practise  the  same  trade  are  con- 
gregated in  one  quarter  of  the  town.  Some  artisans  are 
scarcely  numerous  enough  to  form  a  street  of  their  own ;  but 
you  might  find  whole  streets  of  ironmongers,  copper-smiths, 
braziers,  weavers  and  confectioners,  and  these  streets  of  shops 
are  called  bazaars.  Let  us  wander  for  a  few  minutes  through 
one  of  these  native  bazaars.  We  see  nowhere  any  closed 
shops  resembling  those  of  Europe.  On  both  sides  of  us  are 
open  recesses  with  dark  interiors,  wholly  destitute  of  glass 
windows,  but  protected  towards  the  street  by  projecting 
wooden  eaves,  often  covered  with  cocoa-nut  leaves  or  bamboos, 
and  sometimes  supported  by  well  carved  wooden  pillars.  In 
these  recesses,  or  under  the  open  projections,  are  exposed  for 
sale  all  kinds  of  commodities,  their  scantily  clothed  owners 
squatting  in  an  apathetic  manner  on  the  ground,  and  ap- 
parently by  no  means  eager  to  serve  their  customers.  Here, 
in  one  quarter,  we  find  vendors  of  coarse  confectionery — 
strange  concoctions  of  ghee,  sugar,  almonds,  pistachio  nuts, 
and  saffron,  or  sellers  of  vegetables  prepared  with  turmeric 
and  flavoured  with  assafetida.  There,  in  another  street,  are 
the  workers  in  metal  or  wood.  Everywhere  we  see  open 
workshops  filled  with  artisans  patiently  and  persistently  pl>'ing 


464    Caste  in  relation  to   Trades  and  Industries. 

their  occupation  after  the  fashion  of  their  fathers.  Even 
artificers  of  a  higher  grade  carry  on  their  work  ahnost  in  the 
open  street  before  your  eyes,  not  at  all  disturbed  by  the 
jostling  throng  of  passengers  around  them,  and  not  at  all 
objecting  to  their  operations  being  watched,  or  the  secrets  of 
their  craft  studied.  The  patience,  perseverance,  and  power  of 
physical  endurance  displayed  by  an  Indian  workman  are  well 
worthy  of  imitation  by  us  in  Europe.  He  seems  to  be  pro- 
foundly conscious  of  the  truth  that  nothing  of  any  kind  can 
be  well  done,  and  no  success  of  any  kind  achieved  in  this 
workday  world  of  ours,  without  the  application  of  the  most 
common-place  patient  drudgery. 

It  is  curious  that  in  some  trades  even  strict  holidays  are 
made  a  source  of  revenue  to  the  general  body.  One  shop 
in  each  market  is  then  allowed  to  be  kept  open.  The  right 
to  open  this  shop  is  put  up  to  auction  and  given  to  the 
highest  bidder,  the  amount  being  devoted  to  the  general 
purposes  of  the  caste. 

In  a  few  trades  children  help  the  men.  The  aid  of  their 
lithe  and  supple  fingers  is  of  great  importance  in  all  delicate 
manipulations.  It  must,  however,  be  admitted  that  the  Hindu 
is  a  slow  worker ;  he  will  take  a  whole  day  about  a  thing 
which  an  active  European  would  finish  off  in  a  couple  of 
hours.  Yet  for  all  that,  if  we  watch  a  party  of  Hindu  work- 
men for  a  sufficient  length  of  time  we  shall  see  the  crudest 
raw  material  transformed  before  our  eyes  into  excellent 
articles  of  every-day  use;  not  very  rapidly  —  not  by  any 
striking  processes  of  inventive  art — but  by  simple  dexterity 
of  manipulation,  by  skilful  movements  of  hands  and  feet, 
aided  by  a  few  rough  implements  according  to  the  most 
primitive  methods. 

Often  these  humble  artisans  have  no  workshops  of  their 
own.  They  bring  their  implements  and  their  whole  stock-in- 
trade  to  the  houses  of  those  who  need  their  services,  and 
when  the  work  required  of  them  is  finished,  pack  up  their 


Caste  in  relation  to   Trades  and  Industries.    465 

tools  and  seek  another  employer.  Nor  does  it  ever  enter  into 
the  heads  of  even  the  better  class  of  workmen  to  tliink  of 
availing  themselves  of  any  modern  scientific  improvements. 
If  the  most  wonderful  labour-saving  machine  were  offered  for 
their  use,  they  would  still  prefer  the  machinery  of  their  fingers, 
and  the  old  traditionary  practices  received  from  their  fathers. 

And,  perhaps,  the  great  secret  of  the  beauty  of  Indian  art 
h'es  in  the  suppleness  and  flexibility  of  Indian  fingers,  and  the 
consequent  delicacy  of  Indian  manipulation.  The  hand  of 
the  commonest  menial  servant  in  an  Indian  household  is  often 
as  delicately  formed  as  that  of  the  most  refined  aristocratic 
beauty  at  a  European  court.  Yes,  we  must  go  to  India  for 
the  best  illustration  of  the  truth  that  the  human  hand  is  the 
most  wonderful  of  all  machines.  In  Europe,  manufacture  is 
no  longer,  as  it  ought  to  be  according  to  its  etymology,  hand- 
work. But  in  India  the  hand  is  still  the  chief  implement 
employed  ;  and  a  fervent  hope  may  be  expressed  that  no 
European  machinery  may  soon  take  its  place.  No  greater 
calamity  could  befall  Indian  art  than  that  it  should  abandon 
its  own  traditions  and  principles  for  meretricious  ideas  derived 
from  European  sources.  If  any  one  doubts  this,  let  him  visit 
the  Indian  Museum  at  South  Kensington  and  examine  the 
specimens  there  collected.  No  one  could  fail  to  admire  the 
exquisite  carvings,  the  delicate  silver  filigree  work,  the  artistic 
feeling  displayed  in  the  fashioning  of  ornaments  ;  the  gor- 
geous richness  of  the  Kincob  work,  with  its  gold,  silver,  and 
silken  threads,  woven  into  the  texture  of  the  fabric ;  the 
tasteful  designs  and  matchless  colouring  of  Cashmere  and 
Delhi  scarfs  and  shawls ;  the  marvellous  skill  and  taste 
displayed  in  the  sandal  wood-carving  and  inlaid  wood-work ; 
the  sumptuous  gold  and  silver  plate-work  and  highly-tem- 
pered steel  weapons  of  Kutch ;  the  exquisite  embroidery  and 
needlework  of  Amritsar  and  Delhi  ;  the  exquisitely  fine 
muslin  produced  at  Dacca. 

In   this   last   kind    of  manufacture   the    Hindu   artisan    is 

II  h 


466    Caste  in  relation  to  Trades  and  Indtistrics. 

absolutely  unrivalled.  With  a  loom  of  the  simplest  con- 
struction, formed  of  a  few  rough  sticks  and  reeds,  he  pro- 
duces something  which  no  European  machinery  can  equal ; 
for  the  mysteries  of  his  craft  have  been  transmitted  from 
father  to  son  for  thousands  of  years.  The  names  given  to 
different  kinds  of  these  muslins,  such  as  'woven  air/  'web 
of  the  wind/  '  evening  dew/  '  running  water/  indicate  the 
extreme  fineness  and  subtlety  of  their  texture.  A  whole 
dress  of  the  finest  quality  may  easily  be  passed  through  a 
small  finger  ring,  and  a  piece  thirty  feet  in  length  may 
be  packed  in  a  case  not  much  bigger  than  an  &^^  shell — 
yet  such  a  piece  may  take  a  workman  at  least  four  months 
to  fabricate,  and  be  worth  forty  pounds. 

It  is  recorded  that  a  cow-keeper  was  once  prosecuted  by 
a  weaver  because  one  of  his  cows  had  eaten  up  three  dresses 
of  this  muslin  accidentally  left  on  the  grass.  The  cow-keeper 
pleaded  before  the  Judge  that  the  muslin  was  too  fine  to 
be  distinguished  by  a  hungry  cow,  and  his  plea  was  accepted. 

Again,  a  story  is  told  of  a  young  lady  who  appeared  at  the 
court  of  a  Muhammadan  Emperor  in  much  too  transparent 
garments  to  be  thought  respectable.  When  accused  of  ex- 
hibiting rather  too  much  of  the  surface  of  her  body  in  a 
questionable  manner,  she  indignantly  repudiated  the  charge, 
on  the  ground  that  she  had  carefully  enveloped  her  entire 
person  in  seven  folds  of  Dacca  muslin. 

It  would  be  easy  to  dilate  on  other  examples  of  the  higher 
artistic  genius  of  India.  We  are  astonished  at  the  Indian 
workman's  mastery  over  his  materials.  Even  in  the  more 
common  work  great  regard  is  paid  to  beauty  of  form  and 
right  proportion,  and  great  taste  in  the  arrangement  and 
distribution  of  the  ornament.  Seldom  has  the  border  of  a 
shawl  or  other  woven  cloth  too  much  or  too  little  detail. 
Seldom  is  a  flowery  pattern  overdone,  too  full  or  too  scanty, 
too  large  or  too  small.  As  to  the  jewelry,  this  of  all  Indian 
arts  is  the  most  ancient  and  most  elaborated  ;  for  what  would 


Caste  in  7'elaiion  to   Trades  and  Industries.    467 

Indian  women,  from  the  lowest  to  the  highest,  be  without 
their  jewels?  In  most  large  Indian  houses  belonging  to  rich 
natives  a  jeweller  will  be  found  at  work  in  some  ante-room 
manufacturing  jewels  for  the  family,  or  repairing  those  in 
daily  use.  Here  is  a  description  of  a  typical  Indian  bride 
of  high  rank  in  ancient  times  arrayed  for  her  marriage.  '  She 
has  no  other  clothing  but  one  light  garment,  ten  yards  in 
length,  of  a  rosy  red  colour,  embroidered  with  gold,  wound 
round  her  body  in  graceful  folds;  she  has  jewelled  butterflies 
in  her  raven  hair ;  her  ears  are  bored  in  six  places,  and 
loaded  with  resplendent  gems ;  a  magnificent  nose-ring  of 
emeralds  and  pearls  sparkles  in  one  nostril ;  bright  golden 
bracelets  encircle  her  wrists,  and  shining  armlets  her  arms ; 
a  golden  zone  binds  her  slender  waist  ;  she  has  jewelled  rings 
on  her  fingers,  and  golden  rings  on  her  toes,  and  golden 
anklets,  with  musical  bells  attached,  are  fastened  round  her 
ankles,  which  make  a  tinkling  sound  as  she  walks  with  her 
naked  feet  over  the  carpeted  floor.' 

Those  who  were  in  India  during  the  Prince  of  Wales' 
visit,  and  saw  the  jewelled  dresses  of  the  Indian  chiefs,  will 
not  easily  forget  the  sight.  I  was  myself  present  in  Sir 
Richard  Temple's  house,  when  the  Maharaja  of  Patiala  hap- 
pened to  make  a  morning  call.  His  coat  was  of  blue  satin, 
beautifully  embroidered  with  rows  of  pearls  ;  he  had  costly 
ear-rings,  and  a  matchless  necklace  of  diamonds  worth  ^{^ 60,000 
was  suspended  in  a  careless  manner  about  his  neck.  Strings 
of  immense  uncut  jewels  ornamented  his  white  turban.  Even 
the  humblest  woman  in  India  would  lose  her  self-respect  if 
she  ever  appeared  before  her  family  without  a  nose-ring  and 
a  few  bangles.  Children  are  often  left  without  a  thread  of 
clothing,  till  they  are  six  or  seven  years  of  age,  but  they 
are  rarely  without  wrist-bands,  or  jewelled  ornaments  of  some 
kind. 

When  the  sister  of  the  late  Bishop  of  Calcutta  once  visited 
some  native  ladies  in  a  Zenana,  she  made  some  remark  about 

H  h  3 


468     Caste  in  relation  to   Trades  and  Indnstries. 

the  simplicity  of  their  attire.  '  Look,'  she  said, '  at  the  number 
and  weight  of  my  garments.'  '  Yes,'  they  rephed,  '  but  look 
at  the  number  and  weight  of  our  jewehy.'  The  use  of  jewels, 
especially  diamonds,  as  amulets  or  talismans,  is  not  un- 
common. Certain  gems  are  believed  to  possess  magical  pro- 
perties. A  celebrated  amulet  once  existed  in  ancient  India, 
supposed  to  be  all-potent  in  protecting  from  evil  influences. 
It  consisted  of  nine  gems  (a  pearl,  ruby,  sapphire,  topaz, 
diamond,  emerald,  lapis  lazuli,  coral,  and  one  unknown  gem 
called  Gomeda).  Even  the  commonest  Indian  jewelry  pre- 
sents examples  of  every  variety  of  beautiful  design  and 
workmanship.  The  forms  have  come  down  by  unbroken 
tradition  from  the  earliest  times. 

The  fact  is,  that  in  India,  artisans  are  not  obliged  to  be 
ever  pandering  to  the  mania  for  novelty,  ever  racking  their 
brains  to  invent  some  new  fashion.  They  plod  on  in  the 
old  beaten  paths  ;  they  are  able  to  devote  their  energies 
to  the  beautifying,  improving,  and  perfecting  of  what  already 
exists.  Perhaps  the  most  beautiful  ornaments  are  the  work 
of  artificers,  who  have  continued  in  the  service  of  a  particular 
line  of  Rajas  for  centuries.  These  men  dare  not  work  for 
other  employers.  The  secret  of  their  skill  is  preserved  reli- 
giously in  their  own  families,  and  held  to  be  the  property  of 
their  masters. 

Sometimes  the  work  of  such  men  is  made  subservient  to 
the  spiritual  interests  of  their  masters  in  rather  a  remarkable 
manner.  For  example,  it  is  recorded  of  a  certain  king  of 
Travancore,  that  feeling  the  blood  he  had  spilt  in  his  many 
wars  lie  heavily  on  his  conscience,  he  sought  counsel  of  his 
priests,  who  told  him  that  if  he  wished  to  be  cleansed  from 
his  guilt  his  only  course  was  to  pass  through  the  body  of 
a  cow — that  being  the  most  sacred  of  all  animals.  This 
seemed  rather  a  difficult  task  to  perform,  but  it  was  eventually 
accomplished  by  help  of  the  court  jeweller  and  goldsmith,  who 
manufactured  a  jewelled  cow  of  the  purest  gold  of  immense 


Caste  in  relation  to   Trades  and  Lidustries.     469 

value.  Into  the  interior  of  this  golden  image  tlic  king 
solemnly  crept,  and  there  lay  for  many  days  in  a  state  of 
abject  contrition,  till  at  length  the  process  of  purification 
being  completed,  he  was  permitted  to  emerge  with  all  his 
blood-guiltiness  removed,  all  his  sins  atoned  for,  and  all  his 
cheerfulness  of  mind  restored.  Then  would  it  be  possible 
to  see  anywhere  more  admirable  specimens  of  modelling 
than  the  clay  figures  made  at  Krishnagar  ?  Such  exquisite 
modelling,  and  the  beauty  of  Indian  miniature  paintings  on 
wood,  talc,  and  ivory,  prove  that  had  the  arts  of  sculpture 
and  painting  been  cultivated  by  the  Hindus,  they  might  have 
attained  great  perfection.  As  it  is,  not  a  single  fine  large 
painting,  nor  beautiful  statue  is  to  be  seen  throughout  India. 
Even  the  images  of  gods  are  only  remarkable  for  their  utter 
hideousness ;  nor  do  we  see  anywhere  good  specimens  of 
household  furniture,  for  in  India  the  houses  of  the  richest 
natives  are,  to  European  eyes,  almost  furnitureless.  Even 
in  princely  palaces  we  may  pass  through  beautifully  decorated 
rooms,  we  may  see  exquisite  carved  wood  in  niches  and 
verandahs ;  yet  the  rooms  appear  to  us  bare  and  empty. 
Not  a  chair  or  table  is  to  be  seen  except  in  apartments,  set 
apart  for  Europeans  ;  and  the  princely  owner  of  the  mansion 
will  probably  be  found  seated  on  a  rug  with  a  pillow  behind 
his  back. 

And  here  let  me  say,  that  if  the  excellence  of  the  articles 
which  the  Indian  artificer  produces,  with  no  other  appliances 
than  his  hands,  and  the  rudest  tools,  and  the  admirable  tra- 
ditions of  form,  design,  and  colour  preserved  in  his  produc- 
tions, excite  our  surprise,  we  are  no  less  astonished  at  the 
low  cost  of  his  workmanship.  I  visited  a  turner's  shop  in 
Benares,  where  a  man  was  making  a  set  of  twenty  toy  boxes, 
some  lackered,  some  coloured,  all  neatly  constructed  and 
furnished  with  lids,  and  fitting  one  inside  the  other  so  that 
the  smallest  box  in  the  interior  of  all  was  not  bigger  than 
the  head  of  a  knitting-needle.     The  price  of  the  whole  nest 


470    Caste  in  relation  to  Trades  and  hidiLstries. 

of  twenty  boxes  was  not  more  than  fourpence  or  sixpence, 
although  twenty-three  different  manipulations  were  needed 
to  complete  each  box. 

Again,  I  went  into  a  brass-worker's  shop  in  the  braziers' 
quarter  at  Benares,  where  men  were  engaged  in  manu- 
facturing drinking  cups,  salvers,  vases,  and  other  vessels. 
These  workmen  were  seen  chiselling  out  exquisite  intricate 
and  beautiful  patterns  with  no  other  implements  than  a 
hammer  and  a  nail.  A  purchaser  of  any  such  articles  re- 
quests to  have  them  weighed  before  buying  them,  and  only 
pays  a  shilling  or  two  beyond  the  actual  value  of  the  brass. 

Frequently,  indeed,  it  strikes  a  European  as  strange,  that  if 
he  desires  to  purchase  any  of  the  beautiful  articles  he  sees 
before  him  in  native  workshops,  scarcely  a  single  thing  is 
to  be  had  ;  they  have  all  been  made  to  order.  There  is  little 
stock  kept,  and  whatever  a  customer  wants  must  be  made 
specially  to  order,  and  not  without  an  advance  in  money. 
There  is  little  capital  to  be  found  in  India ;  and  this  perhaps 
will  account  for  the  undoubted  fact,  that  Indian  industries  are 
left  behind  in  the  race  of  competition  by  those  of  Europe. 

During  the  American  war,  vast  quantities  of  Indian  cotton — 
to  the  annual  value  of  twenty-two  million  pounds  sterling 
— found  its  way  to  England,  to  be  returned  in  the  form  of 
printed  calico  to  India.  The  Manchester  cotton  cloth  was 
far  inferior  to  that  spun  and  woven,  and  decorated  with  orna- 
mental patterns,  by  men's  hands  in  India,  but  it  was  much 
cheaper,  because  even  the  most  active  hand  workers,  working 
with  imperfect  implements  and  tools,  according  to  antiquated 
methods  for  the  lowest  possible  wages,  cannot  compete  with 
machine-made  goods,  or  make  head  against  the  combination 
of  European  science,  capital,  and  enterprise.  It  is  on  this 
account  that  cotton  mills  have  recently  been  established  at 
Bombay,  and  in  some  other  parts  of  India.  No  less  than 
fifty- three  spinning  and  weaving  mills  had  been  erected,  when 
I  was  in  India,  while  others  were  in  process  of  erection.     Is  it 


Caste  in  relation  to   Trades  and  Industiies.    471 

likely,  then,  that  Indian  trades  and  industries  will  be  inju- 
riously affected  by  the  introduction  of  luii^lish  ideas,  English 
machinery,  and  English  education?  Time  will  show.  But 
Caste  is  a  strong  conservative  force,  and  as  long  as  its  strength 
continues,  and  the  present  intimate  connexion  between  trades 
and  caste  is  maintained,  so  long  may  Indian  artisans  be  ex- 
pected to  work  on  in  their  old  grooves,  Indian  agriculturalists 
to  plod  on  in  their  old  ruts,  and  primitive  customs  to  hold 
their  own  against  all  modern  inventions. 

Even  in  England  caste  feeling  operates  strongly  in  certain 
trades  and  professions.  In  India  it  is  all  powerful,  and  any 
individual  workman  who  might  wish  to  adopt  new  ideas, 
would  find  it  impossible  to  withstand  the  opposition  of  his 
caste-fellows.  For  be  it  observed  that  an  Indian  ca§te  is 
something  more  than  a  mere  union  or  league  for  trading  and 
commercial  objects.  It  is  certainly  much  more  than  a  mere 
social  division,  or  class  of  men.  Caste  is  not  class ;  the  pro- 
per native  term  for  caste  is  jati  (jat),  birth. 

And,  in  truth,  the  idea  of  a  man's  birth  in  a  particular  social 
circle,  with  a  particular  fixed  occupation,  and  of  his  perpetual 
and  unalterable  confinement  within  the  boundaries  of  that 
social  circle  is  essential  to  the  true  idea  of  caste.  This  applies 
even  to  certain  criminal  castes  in  India,  whose  fixed  and 
unalterable  business,  inherited  from  their  fathers  and  grand- 
fathers, is  that  of  plundering  others.  Of  course  there  are 
exceptions  to  this  general  rule.  In  some  instances  castes 
have  changed  their  occupations  without  changing  their  names, 
just  as  the  members  of  our  great  city  companies  are  no  longer 
goldsmiths,  drapers,  merchant  tailors,  or  fishmongers.  The 
higher  castes,  too,  are  allowed  considerable  liberty  of  employ- 
ment. A  Brahman  may  devote  himself  to  almost  any  pursuit 
not  absolutely  degrading.  He  may  be  a  cook,  or  even  a  soldier. 
Occasionally,  too,  men  of  the  lower  castes  may  rise  to  higher 
professions,  though  not  to  higher  castes  ;  but  these  exceptions 
only  prove  the  rule.      A   Hindu  is  taught  by  his  religious 


472     Caste  in  relation  to  Trades  and  Industries. 

books  to  believe  that  God  created  orders  of  men,  with  fixed 
employments,  as  He  created  varieties  of  animals  and  plants. 
Priests,  soldiers,  field-labourers,  and  servants  were  born, 
and  must  continue  as  distinct  as  eagles,  lions,  horses,  and 
dogs ;   wheat,  rice,  barley,  and  beans. 

In  Europe,  the  laws  of  society  are  supposed  to  be  of  inferior 
obligation  to  the  laws  of  the  nation  and  the  laws  of  religion. 
An  educated  Englishman,  for  instance,  is  ready  to  submit  to 
the  unwritten  laws  of  his  own  social  circle,  but  never  allows 
any  rule  of  caste  to  supersede  the  higher  laws  of  the  nation 
and  of  Christianity.  In  India,  on  the  contrary,  the  laws  of 
caste,  and  the  laws  of  religion,  are  part  and  parcel  of  one 
Divine  law,  of  which  the  Brahman  is  the  interpreter,  and 
the  laws  of  caste  are  stronger  and  more  effectual  than  any 
law  of  religion  or  Government. 

Perhaps  the  nearest  parallel  to  the  action  of  Indian  caste 
to  be  found  in  Europe  is  in  such  a  social  confederation  as  the 
late  Land-League  of  Ireland,  the  members  of  which  were 
bound  together  by  an  iron  bond,  were  allowed  no  individual 
liberty  of  action,  were  forced  to  submit  their  lives  to  the  will 
of  the  League,  and  made  to  subordinate  the  laws  of  the  state 
to  the  laws  and  mandates  of  their  own  unscrupulous  leaders. 
Let  not  those  leaders  pride  themselves  on  the  invention  of 
Boycotting  as  if  it  were  a  clever  device,  due  to  Irish  ingenuity. 
India  has  furnished  examples  of  Boycotters,  and  Boycottees, 
for  many  centuries.  If  a  man  offend  against  the  rules  of 
caste,  a  meeting  of  his  caste-fellows  is  instantly  called,  and 
the  offence  being  proved,  he  is  thereupon  condemned  to  a 
form  of  persecution  of  which  Boycotting  is  a  bad  imitation. 

"When  I  was  in  Gujarat,  in  1875,  a  man  named  Lallu-bhai, 
a  cloth  merchant  of  Ahmedabad,  was  proved  to  have  com- 
mitted a  heinous  caste  crime.  He  had  married  a  widow  of 
his  own  caste,  and  to  marry  a  widow  is,  in  the  eyes  of  a 
Hindu,  a  most  awful  offence.  A  woman  once  married,  belongs 
to  one  husband,  for  time  and  eternity.     Forthwith,  he  was 


Caste  in  relation  to   Trades  and  Industries.    473 

sentenced  to  complete  excommunication.  No  one,  cither  of 
his  own  or  any  other  caste,  was  to  be  allowed  to  associate 
with  him ;  no  one  was  to  cat  witli  him  ;  no  one  was  to 
have  any  trade-dealings  with  him ;  no  one  was  to  marry 
any  of  his  children  ;  no  temple  was  to  receive  him  as  a  wor- 
shipper ;  and,  if  he  died,  no  one  was  to  carry  his  body  to  the 
burning  ground.  On  the  morning  after  the  sentence  was 
passed,  he  went  into  the  bazaar  as  usual,  but  not  a  person 
would  buy  from  him  or  sell  to  him  ;  he  could  get  no  home 
to  live  in  ;  and  none  of  his  debtors  would  pay  him  their 
debts.  It  was  impossible  to  sue  them,  as  no  one  would  give 
evidence.  He  was  a  ruined  man,  and  had  to  leave  the 
country,  and  obtain  Government  employment  in  a  distant 
city. 

This  may  seem  an  extreme  case,  but  it  would  be  easy  to 
multiply  similar  instances  of  the  tyranny  and  terrorism  of 
caste-leagues  in  our  Indian  Empire.  Yet,  it  cannot  be 
doubted,  that  as  a  matter  of  fact,  the  caste  system  of  India 
really  resulted  from  a  natural  and  beneficial  process  of  de- 
velopment. Nor  can  there  be  a  greater  mistake  than  to 
conclude  that  the  lower  castes  and  trades  are  in  a  condition 
of  unhappiness  or  oppression.  They  all  take  a  pride  in  their 
own  work,  and  their  own  caste,  and  are  not  the  despised 
creatures  they  are  usually  represented  to  be ;  though  here 
and  there  an  arrogant  Brahman  may  look  down  upon  them. 

The  truth  is,  that  of  all  masters,  caste  is  the  worst  when 
allowed  to  become  a  despot.  It  is  then  a  league  of  the  worst 
kind  ;  and  we  have  not  far  to  look,  even  in  our  own  favoured 
country,  if  we  wish  to  see  the  tyranny  and  terrorism  such 
a  league  may  establish.  Its  action  tends  to  arrest  progress, 
to  paralyse  energy,  to  crush  manly  independence,  to  stifle 
healthy  public  opinion,  to  make  nationality,  patriotism,  and 
true  liberty  almost  impossible.  At  the  same  time  caste- 
leagues  have  their  good  as  well  as  their  bad  side,  and  at 
a  particular  stage  of  a  nation's  life  may  do  good  service.     In 


474     Caste  in  relation  to   Trades  and  Industries. 

India,  caste  has  been  useful  in  promoting  self-sacrifice,  in 
securing  subordination  of  the  individual  to  an  organized  body, 
in  restraining  from  vice,  in  preventing  pauperism.  And 
certainly  the  antagonism  of  these  caste  associations  and  trade 
leagues  has  helped  us  to  govern  the  country  by  making 
political  combinations  impracticable  \  Our  wisest  policy  will 
be  to  convert  caste  from  a  master  into  a  servant ;  to  defeat 
its  evil  action,  not  so  much  by  forcible  suppression  as  by  the 
gradual  application  of  corrective  influences ;  to  counteract  its 
false  teaching  by  imparting  true  ideas  of  liberty — true  principles 
of  political  economy,  social  science,  and  morality ;  to  supplant 
its  tyrannical  enactments  by  considerate  legislation,  based  on 
the  ancient  laws  and  customs  of  the  country ;  to  make  its 
hard  support  and  iron  grasp  needless  by  helping  the  masses 
to  ameliorate  their  own  condition,  and  stimulating  them  to 
improve  their  own  national  arts,  trades,  and  industries  in  their 
own  way.  By  doing  this  will  England  best  fulfil  her  mission ; 
best  discharge  her  sacred  trust ;  best  advance  the  cause  of 
religion  and  justice;  best  promote  the  well-being  and  con- 
ciliate the  afi"ections  of  the  countless  millions  of  her  Eastern 
Empire. 

'  The  great  diversity  of  languages  and  dialects,  numbering  at  least 
2CXD — not  to  mention  religious  and  sectarian  differences  which  accompany 
caste — is  doubtless  another  great  element  of  safety.  It  may  be  well, 
however,  to'  point  out  that  the  increasing  employment  of  English  as  a 
common  medium  of  communication  among  an  increasing  number  of 
intelligent  natives  educated  by  us  in  every  separate  district  and  pro- 
vince of  India,  is  contributing  in  no  small  degree  towards  making 
national  union  possible,  and  towards  weakening  the  wall  of  partition 
hitherto  strengthened  by  linguistic  divergences. 


CHAPTER   XIX. 

Modern  Hindft   TJicism^.     Rdnimohuu  Roy. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  the  first  introduction  of 
Theism  into  India  was  due  to  the  founders  of  the  Brahma- 
Samaj  (in  Bengal  written  Brahmo-Somaj),  or  modern  Thcistic 
Churches  of  Bengal.  Some  of  the  oldest  hymns  of  the  Rig- 
veda  are  monotheistic,  and  all  the  most  pronounced  forms  of 
Indian  pantheism  rest  on  the  fundamental  doctrine  of  God's 
unity.  'There  is  one  Being  and  no  second,'  'Nothing  really 
exists  but  the  one  eternal  omnipresent  Spirit,'  was  the  dogma 
enunciated  by  ancient  Hindu  thinkers.  It  was  a  dogma 
accepted  by  the  philosophical  Brahman  with  all  its  con- 
sequences and  corollaries.  He  firmly  believed  himself  and 
the  Universe  to  be  parts  of  the  one  eternal  Essence,  and 
wrapped  himself  up  accordingly  in  a  kind  of  Serene  indiffer- 
ence to  all  external  phenomena  and  circumstances.  Again 
even  the  ordinary  Hindij  who  practises  the  most  corrupt 
forms  of  polytheism  is  never  found  to  deny  the  doctrine  of 
Gods  unity.  On  the  contrary,  he  will  always  maintain  that 
God  is  essentially  one,  though  he  holds  that  the  one  God 
exhibits  Himself  variously,  and  that  He  is  to  be  worshipped 

*  Although  my  account  of  modem  Hindu  Theism — which  appeared 
first  in  the  Journal  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society — is  principally  the  result 
of  my  own  researches  in  India,  yet  I  am  indebted  to  Miss  S.  G.  Collet  for 
much  infonnation.  Her  Brahma  Year-book,  published  at  the  end  of  every 
year,  gives  a  lucid  and  impartial  account  of  the  progress  of  the  Indian 
theistical  movement,  and  it  is  to  her  able  and  disinterested  labours  that 
the  interest  felt  by  the  British  public  in  that  movement  is  mainly  due. 


47^     Modern  Hindu   Theism.     Rainmohnn  Roy. 

through  an  endless  diversity  of  manifestations,  incarnations, 
and  material  forms. 

It  is  to  be  observed,  too,  that  as  often  as  pantheistic  and 
polytheistic  ideas  have  been  pushed  to  preposterous  extremes 
in  India,  a  reaction  has  always  taken  place  towards  simple 
monotheism.  The  Vaishnava  Reformers  of  the  12th,  13th, 
15th,  and  1 6th  centuries  inculcated  a  doctrine  which  was  an 
approximation  towards  the  Christian  idea  of  God's  Unity  and 
Personality,  as  set  forth  in  the  first  article  of  the  Church  of 
England.  Ramanuja,  Madhva,  Vallabha,  and  Caitanya,  all, 
as  we  have  seen,  taught  the  existence  of  one  supreme  personal 
God  of  infinite  power,  wisdom,  and  goodness,  the  Maker  and 
Preserver  of  all  things — a  God  whom  they  called  Vishnu,  and 
whom  they  believed  to  be  distinct  from  the  human  soul 
and  the  material  world. 

But  none  of  these  great  Reformers  succeeded  in  counter- 
acting the  corrupt  tendencies  inherent  in  the  Vaishnava 
system.  That  system  contains  within  itself  the  seeds  of 
constant  morbid  growth  and  unhealthy  development.  It 
cannot  get  rid  of  its  dogma  of  repeated  incarnations,  or,  to 
speak  more  correctly,  repeated  descents  (avatara).  Vishnu,  it 
is  believed,  has  ever  been  accustomed  to  descend  in  the  shape 
of  great  warriors,  great  teachers,  and  even  animals,  to  deliver 
his  creatures  in  seasons  of  special  exigence  and  peril.  Of 
course  such  a  theory  opens  the  door  to  every  kind  of  extra- 
vagant superstition.  Notwithstanding,  therefore,  the  partial 
reformation  accomplished  by  Ramanuja,  Madhva,  Vallabha, 
and  Caitanya,  the  tide  of  degrading  idolatrous  practices  set  in 
more  strongly  than  ever. 

Then  followed  the  monotheistic  reaction  led  by  Kabir  in 
the  1 6th  century  and  improved  upon  shortly  afterwards  by 
Nanak,  the  founder  of  the  Sikh  religion.  These  movements 
were  in  a  great  measure  due  to  Muhammadan  influences. 
Both  Kablr  and  Nanak  did  their  best  to  purify  the  Augean, 
stable  of  corrupt  Hindu  doctrine,  but  met  with  only  partial 


Modern  Hindu   Theism.     RamnioJiun  Roy.     477 

success.  They  taught  devotion  to  one  personal  God,  whether 
called  Vishnu  or  Krishna,  or  designated  by  any  of  his 
established  epithets  or  synonyms.  They  even  endeavoured 
to  unite  Hindus  and  Muhanimadans  on  the  common  ground 
of  belief  in  the  Unity  of  the  Godhead.  But  in  this  they  were 
wholly  unsuccessful,  and  the  tenth  Sikh  Guru,  Govind,  made 
religious  fusion  impossible  by  converting  Sikhs  and  Muslims 
into  bitter  mutual  opponents. 

It  became,  indeed,  a  question  whether  the  followers  of 
Kablr  and  Nanak  were  not  destined  to  become  exterminated 
under  the  persecutions  to  which  they  were  exposed  in  the 
reign  of  Aurangzlb.  Under  that  Emperor  India  suffered 
everywhere  from  an  outburst  of  Muhammadan  fanaticism. 
Nor  was  the  stability  of  Islam  shaken  or  its  hold  over  the 
people  of  India  weakened,  when  the  political  power  of  the 
Muhammadans  declined.  On  the  contrary,  the  number  of 
Muslims  increased,  and  their  bigotry  and  intolerance  gathered 
strength  in  opposition  to  the  advance  of  British  domination, 
and  the  diffusion  of  European  knowledge. 

The  Hindus,  on  the  other  hand,  were  not  too  proud  to 
profit  by  contact  with  European  ideas.  Everywhere  at  the 
great  centres  of  British  authority  a  mighty  stir  of  thought 
began  to  be  set  in  motion^  and  able  men  educated  by  us  made 
no  secret  of  their  dissatisfaction  with  the  national  religion,  and 
their  desire  for  a  purer  faith  than  that  received  from  their 
fathers.  At  the  moment  when  thoughtful  Hindus  were  thus 
asking  for  light  and  leading,  the  right  leader  appeared.  The 
Hindu  reformation  inaugurated  by  Rammohun  Roy  was  the 
first  reformation  due  to  Christian  influences,  and  to  the 
diffusion  of  European  ideas  through  English  education.  He 
was  the  first  great  modern  thcistical  reformer  of  what  may 
be  called  British  India. 

Unhappily  no  biographies  of  India's  eminent  men  have 
ever  been  written.  Neither  Hindus  nor  Muhammadans  have 
ever  shown  any  appreciation  of  the  value  of  such  writings. 


478     Modevji  Hindu   Theism.     RammoJmn  Roy. 

A  good  life  of  Rammohun  Roy,  composed  in  Sanskrit  or 
Bengali,  and  translated  into  Hindustani  and  other  principal 
vernaculars,  together  with  a  collection  of  his  writings,  were 
for  a  long  time  greatly  needed  ^ ;  but  these  wants  have  been 
recently  to  a  great  extent  supplied  by  Nagendra-nath 
Chatterjea  and  Raj  Narain  Bose.  The  former  has  published 
a  life  of  the  Raja  and  the  latter  a  new  edition  of  his  Bengali 
writings.  What  little  is  known  of  his  early  history  is  soon 
told.  According  to  Nagendra-nath  he  was  born  in  May, 
1774,  at  a  village  called  Radhanagar,  in  the  district  of 
Murshidabad.  His  father,  Ram  Kant  Roy,  was  a  Brahman 
of  high  caste,  and  his  grandfather  had  held  offices  under  the 
Mogul  Emperor.  At  an  early  age  Rammohun  Roy  was  sent 
to  study  Persian  and  Arabic  literature,  including  the  Kuran 
itself,  at  the  great  seat  of  Muhammadan  learning,  Patna.  It 
was  thought  that  his  proficiency  in  Muhammadan  lore  might 
lead  to  his  advancement  at  the  Mogul  court.  Not  that  he 
neglected  Sanskrit  or  his  Brahmanical  studies.  His  father 
was  a  worshipper  of  Vishnu.  Every  morning  the  son  was 
accustomed  to  read  a  chapter  of  the  Vaishnava  bible— the 
Bhagavata  Purana.  Naturally  thoughtful  and  intelligent,  he 
soon  began  to  think  for  himself,  and  to  see  through  the  absurd 
tissue  of  fable  by  which  its  authority  is  supported.  Wholly 
unable  to  acquiesce  in  its  extravagant  mythology,  he  betook 
himself  to  the  simple  Vedic  system,  and  the  Vedanta  as 
expressed  in  the  Upanishads  attracted  his  special  attention. 

At  the  age  of  sixteen  he  composed  a  spirited  tract  against 
idolatry.  This  for  a  mere  boy  was  a  sufficiently  remarkable 
achievement,  and  not  likely  to  pass  unnoticed.  As  a  matter 
of  course  it  roused  the  anger  not  only  of  his  own  immediate 

^  The  Rev.  K.  S.  Macdonald  gave  a  short  and  interesting  summary  of 
his  life  in  a  paper  read  at  Darjeeling  (June,  1879),  and  Miss  Mary  Car- 
penter published  an  interesting  account  of  his  '  Last  Days '  in  1866.  Mr. 
Macdonald's  anecdotes  were  chiefly  taken  from  a  speech  delivered  by 
Raj  Narain  Bose  at  one  of  the  annual  meetings  for  commemorating  the 
memory  of  the  Raja. 


Modern  Hindu   TJicisDi.     Ranimohun  Roy.     479 

family,  but  of  all  his  relatives  and  superiors.     In  consequence 
of  the   enmity   thus    excited    against   him,    it    was    thought 
advisable  that  he  should  leave  his  father's  home  for  a  time. 
He  resided  first  at  l^cnares,  the  stronghold  of  Brfdmianism, 
and  afterwards  in  Tibet,  where  he  gave  himself  with  much 
zeal  to  the  study  of  Buddhism,  and  had  many  controversies 
with  Buddhist    priests.     Probably  Rammohun  Roy  was  the 
first  earnest-minded  investigator  of  the  science  of  comparative 
religion  that  the  world  has  produced.    From  his  earliest  years 
he  displayed  an  eagerness  to  become  an  unbiased  student  of 
all  the  religions  of  the  globe.     His  sole  aim  in  such  studies 
was  to  seek  out  religious  truth  for  himself  with  perfect  fairness 
and   impartiality.     Hence   he   spared  himself  no  trouble  in 
endeavouring  to  master  the  several  languages  of  the  world's 
sacred  books,  each  of  w'hich  claimed  to  be  the  sole  depositaries 
of  such  truth.     As  he  studied  the  Hindu  Veda  in  Sanskrit,  so 
he  is  believed  to  have  given  his  attention  to  the  Buddhist 
Tripitaka  in  the  original  Pall.     He  is  known,  too,  to  have 
mastered  Arabic  that  he  might  read  the  Kuran,  and  later  in 
life  he  learnt  Hebrew  that  he  might  form  a  just  estimate  of 
the  authority  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  even  began  Greek 
that   he    might    gain    a    complete    knowledge   of    the   New 
Testament. 

On  his  return  home  about  the  year  1796,  he  appears 
to  have  been  reinstated  in  the  favour  of  his  family  and 
relations.  This  led  him  to  apply  himself  with  more  zeal  than 
ever  to  the  study  of  Sanskrit  literature  and  an  examination  of 
the  doctrines  of  his  ancestral  religion.  He  had  too  logical 
a  mind  to  be  deceived  by  Brahmanical  sophistries.  Yet  he 
was  accustomed  to  assert  that  he  had  found  nothing  in  the 
works  of  any  other  country,  Asiatic  or  European,  equal  to 
the  scholastic  philosophy  of  the  Hindus.  It  was  at  about 
this  period  that  he  gave  himself  seriously  to  the  study  of 
English.  At  the  same  time  he  began  to  shake  off  the 
prejudices  he  had  imbibed  against  social  intercourse  with  his 


480     Modern  Hindu   Theism.     Ram^noJmn  Roy. 

country's    rulers,    and    to    derive    benefit    from    mixing    in 
European  society.     After  his  father's  death  in  1803^  Ram- 
mohun    Roy  became   bolder   in   his   controversies   with   the 
Brahmans,     Soon  he  began  to  publish  various  pamphlets  and 
treatises  against  the  errors  of   Hinduism.     This  he  did    at 
considerable  risk  to  his  own  worldly  prospects.     His  father 
had  left  his  property  to  be   divided   among  his  three  sons  ; 
but  it  was  not  long  before,  by  their  death,  Rammohun  Roy 
became  possessed  of  considerable  patrimony,  which  would  have 
been  forfeited  had  he   formally  abjured    his  family  religion, 
and  legally  lost  caste.     With  an  increase  of  wealth  came  an 
increased  desire  for  extension  of  usefulness.    Notwithstanding 
an  inheritance  sufficiently  ample  for  his  own  personal  wants, 
Rammohun  Roy  found  himself  cramped  in  the  carrying  out 
of  the  vast  objects  he  had  in  view.     This  led  him  to  seek 
Government  employment,  and  we  find  him  acting  for  ten 
years    as   Dewan    or   managing    officer   to    the  judges    and 
collectors  of  Rangpur,  Bhagalpur  and   Ramgarh,  especially 
to  a  Mr.  Digby.     Hence   he  was  often  called   DewanjI, — a 
title  by  which  he  continued  to  be  known  until  he  received 
that  of  Raja  from  the  ex-Emperor  of  Delhi,  on  the  occasion 
of  his  embassy  to  England.     One  object  he  had  in  under- 
taking revenue  work  was  to  gain  a  practical  knowledge  of 
the    working    of    the    British    administration.      Some    have 
spitefully    accused   him   of  augmenting   his   own   legitimate 
earnings  by  doubtful  and  underhand  transactions.     It  is  far 
more    likely   that    his    prosperous    career    was    due    to    his 
righteous    dealings,   which    made   him   popular   among    the 
landed    proprietors,    and   to   the   skill   he    displayed   in   the 
settlement  of  Zamindarl  accounts,  which  made  his  services 
indispensable  to  his  masters. 

Notwithstanding   his   assiduous   attention   to   business,  he 


^  Some  give  1804  as  the  date  of  his  death.  His  mother,  who  was  at  first 
very  bitter  against  him,  lived  to  acknowledge  that  he  was  right,  though 
she  could  not  give  up  her  old  faith,  '  which  was  a  comfort  to  her.' 


Modern  Hitidfi   Theism.     RcxnniioJiun  Roy.     481 

found  ample  time  for  study  and  for  the  prosecution  of  his 
schemes  of  reform.  Every  year  his  attitude  of  antagonism 
to  the  idolatry  of  his  fellow-countrymen  became  more  and 
more  marked  and  decided.  The  ground  he  took,  according 
to  his  own  statement,  was  not  that  of  opposition  to  the 
national  faith,  but  to  a  perversion  of  it.  He  endeavoured  to 
show  that  the  idolatry  of  the  Hindus  was  contrary  to  the 
practice  of  their  ancestors,  and  to  the  doctrine  of  the  ancient 
books  and  authorities  which  they  profess  to  revere  and  obey. 
Very  soon  after  his  father's  death  he  had  written  a  book  in 
Persian :  '  Against  the  idolatry  of  all  religions.^  This  was 
followed  at  intervals  by  various  treatises,  and  especially  trans- 
lations of  some  of  the  Upanishads.  In  the  preface  to  the 
Mundaka  Upanishad  of  the  Atharva-veda,  he  says  : — 

'An  attentive  perusal  of  this,  as  well  as  of  the  remaining  books  of  the 
Vedanta,  will,  I  trust,  convince  every  unprejudiced  mind  that  they,  with 
great  consistency,  inculcate  the  unity  of  God  ;  instructing  men,  at  the 
same  time,  in  the  pure  mode  of  adoring  him  in  spirit.  It  will  also  appear 
evident,  that  the  Vedas,  although  they  tolerate  idolatry  as  the  last  provi- 
sion for  those  who  are  totally  incapable  of  raising  their  minds  to  the  con- 
templation of  the  invisible  God  of  Nature,  yet  repeatedly  urge  the 
relinquishment  of  the  rites  of  idol-worship,  and  the  adoption  of  a  purer 
system  of  religion,  on  the  express  grounds  that  the  observance  of 
idolatrous  rites  can  never  be  productive  of  eternal  beatitude.  These  are 
left  to  be  practised  by  such  persons  only  as,  notwithstanding  the  constant 
teaching  of  spiritual  guides,  cannot  be  brought  to  see  perspicuously  the 
Majesty  of  God  through  the  works  of  Nature. 

*  The  public  will,  I  hope,  be  assured  that  nothing  but  the  natural  in- 
clination of  the  ignorant  towards  the  worship  of  objects  resembling  their 
own  nature,  and  to  the  external  form  of  rites  palpable  to  their  grosser 
senses,  joined  to  the  self-interested  motives  of  their  pretended  guides,  has 
rendered  the  generality  of  the  Hindu  community  (in  defiance  of  their 
sacred  books)  devoted  to  idol-worship  : — the  source  of  prejudice  and 
superstition,  and  the  total  destruction  of  moral  principle,  as  countenancing 
criminal  intercourse,  suicide,  female  murder,  and  human  sacrifice.' 

Perhaps  the  most  important  point  to  which  he  awakened 
attention  was  the  absence  of  all  Vedic  sanction  for  the  self- 
immolation  of  widows  (Suttee  =  Sanskrit  Satl).  It  was  prin- 
cipally his  vehement  denunciation  of  this  practice,  and   the 

I  i 


482     Modern  Hindii   Theism.     RammoJiiin  Roy. 

agitation  against  it  set  on  foot  by  him,  which  ultimately  led  to 
the  abolition  of  Satiby  statute  throughout  British  India  in  1829. 

Long  before  that  period,  however,  the  effect  of  his  pub- 
lications and  addresses  was  to  make  his  position  one  of 
increasing  isolation,  until,  in  1814,  finding  himself  surrounded 
by  religious  opponents,  and  ostracised  by  his  own  social 
circle,  he  retired  to  Calcutta.  His  property  by  that  time 
had  so  far  increased  that  he  could  reckon  on  an  income  of 
^1000  per  annum,  and  he  was  able  to  purchase  a  residence 
there. 

It  was  only  to  be  expected  that  among  the  inhabitants  of 
the  metropolis  would  be  many  thoughtful  persons  capable  of 
sympathizing  with  his  lofty  aspirations.  Accordingly  he 
attracted  a  number  of  adherents  from  Hindus  and  Jains 
of  rank,  wealth,  and  influence.  They  gathered  round  him 
in  a  small  but  united  band,  and  agreed  to  co-operate  with 
him  for  the  purification  of  their  religion. 

It  may  well  be  imagined  that  opinions  like  those  which 
Rammohun  Roy  laboured  to  propagate  could  not  have  been 
adopted  by  any  body  of  Hindus  without,  so  to  speak,  loosen- 
ing the  anchorage  by  which  they  held  on  to  the  foundations 
of  their  ancient  faith.  Yet  in  seeking  their  co-operation,  he 
never  swerved  from  his  original  position.  He  continued  to 
declare  that  his  only  object  was  to  bring  back  his  countrymen 
to  what  he  believed  to  be  the  true  monotheistic  doctrine 
underlying  the  Vedic  hymns  and  brought  out  more  clearly 
in  the  Upanishad  portion  of  the  Veda. 

The  first  step  taken  was  to  establish  a  private  society  for 
spiritual  improvement.  The  association  was  called  Atmlya- 
Sabha,  spiritual  society,  and  was  first  formed  about  the  year 
1816.  It  consisted  chiefly  of  Rammohun  Roy's  own  personal 
friends,  among  whom  was  Dvaraka-nath  (Dwarkanath)  Tagore. 
It  met  in  Rammohun  Roy's  house  at  Manictolah,  for  discussion 
at  periodical  intervals ;  but  the  hostility  of  the  Brahmans  and 
Pandits  who  were  sometimes  present,  and  who  were  offended 


Modern  Hindu    TJicisvi.     Raninwhiin  Roy.     483 

and  alarmed  at  the  crushing  demolition  of  their  arguments 
by  the  reforming  party,  proved  too  strong  for  its  continued 
existence.  One  by  one  its  members  dropped  off,  till  by 
degrees  the  society  ceased  to  exist.  The  great  leader  of  the 
movement,  however,  was  not  to  be  so  easily  suppressed.  On 
the  contrary,  he  braced  himself  up  with  greater  energy  than 
ever,  to  continue  the  conflict  single-handed.  His  zeal  and 
industry  in  writing  books,  pamphlets,  and  addresses,  only 
increased  in  vehemence. 

It  is  clear  that  even  at  that  time  his  study  of  the  sayings 
of  Christ  in  the  New  Testament  had  brought  him  to  a  quali- 
fied acceptance  of  Christianity;  for  in  1820  he  published  in 
Bengal!  and  English  a  book  called  '  The  Precepts  of  Jesus, 
the  Guide  to  Peace  and  Happiness.'  In  the  preface  he 
wrote :  — 

'  This  simple  code  of  religion  and  morality  is  so  admirably  calculated 
to  ele\'ate  men's  ideas  to  high  and  liberal  notions  of  one  God,  ....  and  is 
so  well  fitted  to  regulate  the  conduct  of  the  human  race  in  the  discharge 
of  their  \arious  duties  to  God,  to  themselves  and  to  society,  that  I  cannot 
but  hope  the  best  effects  from  its  promulgation  in  its  present  form.' 

In  a  letter  prefixed  to  one  of  his  later  works  (an  edition  of 
the  Kena  Upanishad)  he  makes  the  following  admission  : — 

*  The  consequence  of  my  long  and  uninterrupted  researches  into  reli- 
gious truth  has  been  that  I  have  found  the  doctrines  of  Christ  more  con- 
ducive to  moral  principles,  and  better  adapted  for  the  use  of  rational 
beings,  than  any  other  which  have  come  to  my  knowledge.' 

It  is  said  that  on  being  one  day  shown  a  picture  of  Christ, 
he  remarked  that  the  painter  had  represented  Him  falsely, 
for  he  had  given  Him  a  European  countenance,  forgetting 
that  Jesus  Christ  was  an  Oriental,  and  that,  in  keeping  with 
the  Eastern  origin  of  Christianity,  the  Christian  scriptures 
glow  throughout  with  rich  Oriental  colouring. 

Some,  indeed,  have  not  hesitated  to  affirm  that  Rammuhun 
Roy,  though  he  never  abjured  caste,  was  in  reality  a  true 
Christian.  But  that  he  ever  had  the  slightest  leaning  towards 
Trinitarian  Christianity  is  altogether  unlikely. 

\\% 


484     Modern  Hindu   TJieisnt.     RavimoJiun  Roy, 

In  his  '  Final  Appeal '' '  he  says  : — 

'After  I  have  long  relinquished  every  idea  of  a  plurality  of  Gods,  or 
of  the  persons  of  the  Godhead,  taught  under  different  systems  of  modem 
Hindooism,  I  cannot  conscientiously  and  consistently  embrace  one  of 
a  similar  nature,  though  greatly  refined  by  the  religious  refomiations  of 
modem  times.  Since  whatever  arguments  can  be  adduced  against  a 
plurality  of  Gods  strike  with  equal  force  against  the  doctrine  of  a  plurality 
of  persons  of  the  Godhead  ;  and  on  the  other  hand,  whatever  excuse  may 
be  pleaded  in  favour  of  a  plurality  of  persons  of  the  Deity,  can  be  offered 
with  equal  propriety  in  defence  of  polytheism.' 

In  fact  his  sympathies  with  the  Unitarian  sect  were  always 
strongly  marked,  and  it  is  certain  that,  whenever  his  mind 
could  free  itself  from  the  influence  of  Vedantic  proclivities, 
it  gravitated  towards  a  form  of  Unitarian  Christianity. 

But  in  truth  the  dominant  feeling  in  Rammohun  Roy's 
mind  was  a  craving  for  a  kind  of  eclectic  catholicity. 
Throughout  life  he  shrank  from  connecting  himself  with 
any  particular  school  of  thought.  He  seems  to  have  felt 
a  satisfaction  in  being  claimed  as  a  Vedantist  by  Hindus, 
as  a  Theist  by  Unitarians,  as  a  Christian  by  Christians,  and 
as  a  Muslim  by  Muhammadans.  His  idea  of  inspiration  was 
that  it  was  not  confined  to  any  age  or  any  nation,  but  a  gift 
co-extensive  with  the  human  race.  He  believed  it  to  be  a 
kind  of  divine  illumination,  or  intuitive  perception  of  truth, 
granted  in  a  greater  or  less  degree  to  every  good  man  in 
every  country.  Whatever  was  good  in  the  Vedas,  in  the 
Christian  Scriptures,  in  the  Kuran,  in  the  Zand  Avasta,  or  in 
any  book  of  any  nation  anywhere,  was  to  be  accepted  and 
assimilated  as  coming  from  the  '  God  of  truth,'  and  to  be 
regarded  as  a  revelation.  The  only  test  of  the  validity  of 
any  doctrine  was  its  conformity  to  the  natural  and  healthy 
working  of  man's  reason,  and  the  intuitions  and  cravings  of 
the  human  heart.  '  My  view  of  Christianity,'  he  says  in  a 
letter  to  a  friend,  '  is,  that  in  representing  all  mankind  as  the 

*  He  published  three  'Appeals  to  the  Christian  public'  against  the 
unfair  construction  which  Dr.  Marsham  and  others  had  put  on  his 
'  Precepts  of  Jesus.' 


Modern  Hindu   Theism.     RammoJnin  Roy.     485 

children  of  one  eternal  Father,  it  enjoins  them  to  love  one 
another,  without  making-  any  distinction  of  country,  caste, 
colour,  or  creed.'  It  was  easy  for  a  man  of  so  catholic  and 
liberal  a  spirit  to  become  all  things  to  all  men.  Hence,  it 
is  not  surprising  that  he  cultiyated  friendship  with  Christian 
Missionaries  of  all  denominations.  He  assisted  them  in  their 
translation  of  the  Scriptures,  and  occasionally  joined  in  their 
worship.  It  is  well  known  that  he  aided  Dr.  Duff  in  the 
establishment  of  his  educational  institution  in  Calcutta,  re- 
commending that  its  daily  work  should  be  commenced  with 
the  Lord's  Prayer,  and  declaring  that  he  had  studied  the 
Brahman's  Veda,  the  Muslim's  Kuran,  and  the  Buddhist's 
Tripitaka,  without  finding  anywhere  any  other  prayer  so 
brief,  comprehensive,  and  suitable  to  man's  wants. 

In  1828  occurred  an  event  which  may  be  regarded  as  an 
important  turning-point  in  the  history  of  the  Theistic  move- 
ment. Mr.  W.  Adam,  a  Protestant  Missionary,  had  entered 
into  friendly  communications  with  Rammohun  Roy,  and  had 
been  led  through  his  influence  to  adopt  a  decidedly  Unitarian 
form  of  Christianit}'.  This  led  to  his  being  called  'the  second 
fallen  Adam'  by  his  opponents.  But  not  content  with 
changing  his  own  creed,  he  sought  to  disseminate  the 
opinions  he  had  adopted  by  holding  meetings  and  giving 
lectures  in  a  room  attached  to  the  Bengal  Hurkaru  News- 
paper Office.  For  some  time  Rammohun  Roy,  with  a  few 
of  his  friends,  was  accustomed  to  be  present,  till  at  last  the 
thought  struck  them  that,  instead  of  being  dependent  upon 
a  foreigner  for  religious  edification,  they  might  establish  a 
meeting-house  of  their  own.  Dvaraka-nath  (Dwarkanath) 
Tagore,  Prosonno  Kumar  Tagore,  and  others,  came  forward 
with  pecuniary  aid.  Temporary  rooms  in  the  Chitpore  Road 
were  hired  by  Rammohun  Roy,  and  prayer-meetings  held 
there  every  Saturday  evening.  The  service  was  divided  into 
four  parts — recitation  of  Vedic  texts ;  reading  from  the 
Upanishads ;  delivery  of  a  sermon;  and  singing  h)-nins. 


486     Modern  Hindu   Theis77i.     Rammohiin  Roy. 

It  was  thus  that  the  germ  of  the  first  Thcistic  church  was 
planted  at  Calcutta  in  1828.  The  commencement  of  its 
existence  as  a  living  growing  organization  did  not  take  place 
till  two  years  later.  The  beginning  of  January,  1830,  now 
half  a  century  ago,  inaugurated  a  new  era  in  the  history  of 
Indian  religious  thought.  It  ushered  in  the  dawn  of  the 
greatest  change  that  has  ever  passed  over  the  Hindu  mind. 
A  new  phase  of  the  Hindu  religion  then  took  definite  shape, 
a  phase  which  differed  essentially  from  every  other  that  had 
preceded  it.  For  no  other  reformation  has  resulted  in  the 
same  way  from  the  influence  of  European  education  and 
Christian  ideas. 

The  increase  of  contributions  had  enabled  Rammohun  Roy 
to  purchase  a  large  house  in  the  Chitpore  Road,  and  endow 
it  with  a  maintenance  fund.  Trustees  were  appointed,  and 
the  first  Hindu  Thcistic  Church,  or,  as  it  was  sometimes 
called  by  English-speaking  natives,  the  Hindu  Unitarian 
Church  ^  was  then  opened  in  Calcutta  on  the  nth  Magha, 
1 751,  equivalent  to  January  23,  1830.  The  name  given  to  it 
by  Rammohun  Roy  indicated  its  Unitarian  .character,  and 
yet  connected  it  with  the  national  faith.  It  was  called 
Brahma-Sabha,  or  Brahmiya-Samaj,  that  is  to  say,  'the 
society  of  believers  in  God,'  the  word  Brahma  being  an 
adjective  formed  from  Brahman  (nom.  case  Brahma),  the 
name  of  the  one  self-existent  God  of  orthodox  Hinduism. 

The  trust-deed  of  the  building  laid  down  that  it  was  to  be 
used  as  a  place  of  meeting  for  the  worship  of  the  One 
Eternal,  Unsearchable,  and  Immutable  Being,  the  Author 
and  Preserver  of  the  Universe,  to  the  promotion  of  piety, 
morality,  and  charity,  and  the  strengthening  of  the  bonds 
of  union  between   men  of  all  religious  classes  and  creeds  2. 


^  So  the  Press  at  which  Rammohun  Roy's  pubhcations  were  printed 
was  called  the  Unitarian  Press. 

■■*  It  is  said  that  in  accordance  with  this  principle,  Eurasian  boys  used 
to  sing  the  Psalms  of  David  in  English,  and  Hindu  musicians  religious 
songs  in  Bengali. 


Modern  Hindu    TJicisni.     Raniniohioi  Roy.     48 7 

Moreover,  that  no  image,  print,  picture,  portrait,  or  likeness, 
should  be  admitted  within  the  building,  that  no  sacrifice 
should  be  offered  there,  and  that  nothing  recognized  as  an 
object  of  worship  by  other  men  should  be  spoken  of  con- 
temptuously there.  Yet  Rammohun  Roy  still  held  fast  to 
his  original  position.  He  was  careful  to  make  the  members 
of  the  new  society  understand  that  he  had  no  idea  of  found- 
ing a  new  sect  or  new  system,  or  even  a  new  church  in  the 
ordinary  sense  of  the  word.  He  simply  claimed  to  have 
established  a  pure  monotheistic  worship  for  the  first  time  in 
a  building  where  men  of  all  castes,  all  classes,  and  all  creeds, 
Hindus,  Muhammadans,  and  Christians,  were  invited  to 
worship  together,  the  only  unity  of  faith  demanded  being 
belief  in  the  Unity  of  God.  This  first  introduction  of  public 
worship  and  united  prayer — before  unknown  among  the 
Hindus— was  not  the  least  of  the  benefits  effected  by  Ram- 
mohun Roy.  At  the  same  time,  he  never  quite  abandoned 
the  idea  of  an  order  of  men  ordained  by  God  to  be  special 
teachers  of  divine  truth.  It  is  said  that  the  meeting-house 
of  the  Samaj  had  a  private  room  open  only  to  Brahmans, 
where  special  readings  of  the  Veda  were  conducted  by  them. 

And,  in  truth,  Rammohun  Roy's  attitude  towards  his 
national  religion  continued  that  of  a  friendly  reformer,  even 
to  the  end  of  his  life— a  reformer  who  aimed  at  retaining  all 
that  was  good  and  true  in  Brahmanism,  while  sweeping  away 
all  that  was  corrupt  and  false.  The  weak  point  in  his  plan 
is  manifest.  The  form  of  theology  he  propounded  was  too 
vague,  undogmatic,  and  comprehensive.  He  was,  in  fact,  by 
natural  character  too  intensely  patriotic  not  to  be  swayed, 
even  to  the  last,  by  an  ardent  love  of  old  national  ideas.  He 
had  denounced  caste  as  a  demoralizing  institution  ^ ;  he  had 

'  Thus,  in  the  introduction  to  his  translation  of  the  Isopanishad,  he 
says,  'The  chief  part  of  the  theory  and  practice  of  Hindooism,  I  am  sorry 
to  say,  is  made  to  consist  in  the  adoption  of  a  peculiar  mode  of  diet,  the 
least  aberration  from  which  is  punished  by  exclusion  from  his  family  and 


488     Modern  Hindu   Thcis^n.     RavimoJmn  Roy. 

adopted  a  nearly  true  theory  of  the  unity  and  personality  of 
God  ;  he  had  abandoned  the  doctrines  of  transmigration  and 
final  absorption  of  the  soul ;  he  had  professed  his  belief  in 
a  day  of  judgment ;  he  had  accepted  the  Christian  miracles, 
and  had  even  declared  Jesus  Christ  to  be  the  'Founder  of 
truth  and  true  religion,'  and  had  admitted  that  the  Son  of 
God  was  empowered  by  God  to  forgive  sins  ;  but  he  never 
entirely  delivered  himself  from  his  old  prepossessions,  and 
the  alleged  purity  of  his  monotheism  was  ever  liable  to  be 
adulterated  with  pantheistic  ideas.  In  the  eyes  of  the  law 
he  always  remained  a  Brahman.  He  never  abandoned  the 
Brahmanical  thread,  and  had  too  lively  a  sense  of  the  value 
of  money  to  risk  the  forfeiture  of  his  property  and  the  con- 
sequent diminution  of  his  usefulness  and  influence,  by  formally 
giving  up  his  caste.  In  fact,  though  far  in  advance  of  his  age 
as  a  thinker,  he  laid  no  claim  to  perfection  or  to  perfect  dis- 
interestedness of  motive  as  a  man. 

Unfortunately  for  the  interests  of  India,  Rammohun  Roy's 
career  was  cut  short  prematurely.  In  if^30  the  ex-Emperor 
of  Delhi,  having  long  felt  himself  ill-treated  by  the  Indian 
Government,  deputed  Rammohun  Roy  to  lay  a  representation 
of  his  grievances  before  the  Court  of  Great  Britain,  at  the 
same  time  conferring  on  him  the  title  of  Raja.  The  Raja's 
great  wish  had  alwa3^s  been  to  visit  England  and  inter- 
change ideas  with  the  Western  thinkers.  He  also  wished  to 
oppose  in  person  a  threatened  appeal  against  the  law  for  the 
abolition  of  Suttee  (Satt),  the  •  passing  of  which  had  been 
just  effected  through  his  exertions,  and  which  only  required 
the  royal  assent.  He  was  aware,  too,  that  the  granting  of  a 
new  charter  to  the  East  India  Company  was  about  to  be 
discussed    in    Parliament,    and    he    felt    the    importance   of 


friends.  Murder,  theft,  or  perjury,  though  brought  home  to  the  party  by 
a  judicial  sentence,  so  far  from  inducing  loss  of  caste,  is  visited  with  no 
peculiar  mark  of  infamy.' 


Modern  Hindu   Tlicisni.     Raniuwhun  Roy.     489 

watching  the  proceedings  on  behalf  of  the  natives  of  India, 
and  for  the  furtherance  of  their  interests. 

No  better  time  for  carrying  these  objects  into  execution 
seemed  possible  than  the  period  which  followed  the  opening 
of  his  new  Church.  He  therefore  sailed  for  Liverpool  in 
November,  I1S30,  and  arrived  there  on  the  <Sth  of  April,  1^31, 
being  the  first  native  of  rank  and  influence  who  had  ventured 
to  break  through  the  inveterate  prejudices  of  centuries  by 
crossing  '  the  black  water.'  In  England  his  enlightened 
views,  courteous  manners,  and  dignified  bearing  attracted 
much  attention.  During  his  residence  in  London  he  took 
great  interest  in  the  exciting  political  conflicts  then  raging, 
and  the  passing  of  the  Reform  Bill  caused  him  unmixed 
satisfaction.  He  was  presented  to  the  King,  and  Avas  pre- 
sent  at  the  coronation.  The  evidence  he  gave  on  Indian 
affairs  before  a  Committee  of  the  House  of  Commons  was  of 
course  highly  valuable,  and  ought  to  be  reprinted.  In 
one  of  his  replies  to  the  questions  addressed  to  him  we 
find  him  asserting  that  the  only  course  of  policy  likely  to 
insure  the  attachment  of  the  intelligent  part  of  the  native 
community  to  English  rule  was  'the  making  them  eligible 
to  gradual  promotion,  according  to  their  respective  abilities 
and  merits,  to  situations  of  trust  and  respectability  in  the 
State.'  Unhappily  Riimmohun  Roy  had  not  sufficient  phy- 
sical strength  to  contend  with  the  severity  of  a  L^uropean 
climate.  After  visiting  Paris  and  other  parts  of  France  in 
1833,  he  began  to  show  symptoms  of  declining  health.  He 
had  been  invited  to  visit  Bristol,  and  to  take  up  his  residence 
at  the  house  of  Miss  Castle — a  ward  of  Dr.  Carpenter — in  the 
vicinity  of  that  city.  He  arrived  there  early  in  September, 
1833,  and  shortly  afterwards  was  taken  ill  with  fever.  Every 
attention  was  lavished  on  him,  and  the  best  medical  skill 
called  in  ;  but  all  in  vain.  His  death  took  place  at  Bristol 
on  September  27th,  1833.  He  died  a  Hindu  in  respect  of 
external  observances ;    his   Brahman  servant   performed   the 


490     Mcdern  Hindu   Theism.     Rainmohufi  Roy. 

usual  rites  required  by  his  master's  caste,  and  his  Brahmanical 
thread  was  found  coiled  round  his  person  when  his  spirit 
passed  away.  In  all  his  Anti  Brahmanisni  he  continued  a 
Brahman  to  the  end. 

Even  after  his  death  it  was  thought  advisable  to  keep  up 
the  fiction  of  a  due  maintenance  of  caste.  His  body  was  not 
interred  in  a  Christian  burial-ground,  but  in  the  shrubbery  at 
Stapleton  Grove,  and  without  a  religious  service  of  any  kind. 
It  was  not  till  about  ten  years  afterwards  that  Dwarkanath 
Tagore,  on  the  occasion  of  his  visiting  England  in  1843,  had 
the  coffin  removed  to  Arno's  Vale  Cemetery,  and  a  suitable 
monument  erected  over  the  remains  of  one  of  the  greatest 
men  that  India  has  ever  produced.  Yet  his  grave  is  rarely 
now  visited,  even  by  Indians,  and  few  care  to  make  them- 
selves acquainted  with  the  particulars  of  his  last  days.  For 
India  is  not  alive  to  the  magnitude  of  the  debt  she  owes  to 
her  greatest  modern  Reformer.  Nor  have  his  merits  yet 
received  adequate  recognition  at  the  hands  of  European 
writers.  Nor  indeed  has  it  been  possible  within  the  compass 
of  the  present  summary  to  give  even  a  brief  description  of 
all  the  services  rendered  by  Rammohun  Roy  to  his  country 
as  a  social  as  well  as  religious  Reformer,  of  his  labours  for 
the  elevation  of  women  and  for  the  education  of  the  people 
generally,  of  his  invaluable  suggestions  made  from  time  to 
time  for  the  carrying  out  of  Lord  William  Bentinck's 
political  reforms,  and  of  his  efforts  for  the  improvement  of 
the  Bengal!  language,  and  the  formation  of  a  native  litera- 
ture. Assuredly  the  memory  of  such  a  man  is  a  precious 
possession  to  be  cherished  not  by  India  alone,  but  by.  the 
whole  human  race. 


CHAPTER    XX. 
Modern  Hindu  Theism.     Rannnohiin  Roys  successors. 

It  was  not  to  be  expected  that  the  void  caused  by  the 
death  of  so  great  a  patriot  as  Rammohun  Roy  could  be 
filled  up  immediately.  The  Church  he  had  founded  in  Cal- 
cutta languished  for  a  time,  notwithstanding  that  his  friend 
Dwarkanath  Tagore  and  his  learned  coadjutor  Ramachandra 
VidyilbagTsh  made  efforts  to  maintain  its  vitality,  the  latter 
acting  very  regularly  as  minister  of  the  Samaj.  At  length, 
after  the  interval  of  a  few  years,  a  not  unworthy  successor 
to  Rammohun  Roy  was  found  in  Dwarkanath's  son,  Deben- 
dra-nath  Tagore. 

This  remarkable  man,  who  was  born  in  1818,  and  is  now, 
therefore,  sixty-five  years  of  age,  received  a  good  English 
education  at  the  old  Hindu  College \  and  was  the  first 
to  give  real  organization  to  Rammohun  Roy's  Theistic 
Church.  But  he  imitated  his  great  predecessor  in  doing 
as  little  violence  as  possible  to  the  creed  and  practice  of 
his  forefathers.  He  aimed  at  being  a  purifier  rather  than 
a  destroyer.  He  had  the  advantage  and  disadvantage  of 
a  rich  and  liberal  father.  The  luxury  in  which  he  passed 
his  youth  was  for  some  time  a  drawback  rather  than  an 
aid.  It  was  not  till  he  was  twenty  years  of  age  that  he 
began  to  be  conscious  of  spiritual  aspirations.  Utterly  dis- 
satisfied with  the  religious  condition  of  his  own  people,  and 
with  the  ideas  of  God  presented  by  Brahmanical  teaching,  he 

'  Under  the  teaching  of  a  man  to  whom  Bengal  is  perhaps  as  much 
indebted  as  to  David  Hare. 


492     Jlloda'ii  TJieism.     Rdm7noh?m  Roy'' s  successors. 

set  himself  to  discover  a  purer  system.  It  was  highly  credit- 
able to  his  earnestness  and  sincerity  that  he  took  time  for 
consideration  before  joining  Rammohun  Roy's  Brahma-Sabha, 
or,  as  it  came  to  be  called,  Brahma-Samaj  (Brahmo-Somaj). 

In  1839,  he  established  a  society  of  his  own,  called  the 
'Truth-investigating'  or  'Truth-teaching  Society'  (Tattva- 
bodhini  Sabha),  the  object  of  which,  according  to  its  founder, 
was  to  sustain  and  carry  on  the  labours  of  Raja  Rammohun 
Roy,  and  to  assist  in  restoring  the  monotheistic  system  of 
divine  worship  inculcated  in  the  original  Hindu  scriptures. 

This  Society  lasted  for  twenty  years,  and  was  not  finally 
merged  in  the  Brahma-Samaj  till  1859.  It  met  every  week 
for  discussion  at  Debendra-nath's  house,  and  had  also  monthly 
meetings  for  worship  and  prayer,  and  the  exposition  of  the 
Upanishad  portion  of  the  Veda.  It  had  its  organ  in  a  monthly 
periodical,  called  the  Tattva-bodhinI  patrika.  This  journal 
was  started  in  August,  1  843,  and  was  well  edited  by  Akhay 
Kumar  Datta^  an  earnest  member  of  the  theistic  party.  Its 
first  aim  seems  to  have  been  the  dissemination  of  Vedantic 
doctrine,  though  its  editor  had  no  belief  in  the  infallibility  of 
the  Veda,  and  was  himself  in  favour  of  the  widest  catholicity^ 
He  afterwards  converted  Debendra-nath  to  his  own  views. 

It  was  not  till  1841  that  Debendra-nath,  without  giving 
up  occasional  meetings  at  his  own  house,  formally  joined  the 
church  founded  by  Rammohun  Roy.  He  soon  saw  that  if 
Indian  Theists  were  to  maintain  their  ground  in  India,  they 
needed  organization,  and  that  if  the  Samaj  was  to  exist  as 
a  permanent  church,  it  wanted  a  properly  appointed  presi- 
dent, a  regularly  ordained  minister,  a  settled  form  of  worship, 
and  a  fixed  standard  of  faith  and  practice.  He  himself  under- 
took the  task  of  preparing  what  is  sometimes  called  the 
Brahma  covenant,  consisting  of  seven   solemn  declarations, 


^  The  Tattva-bodhinI  patrika  is  still  in  existence  and  is  now  known  as 
the  organ  of  the  Adi  Brahma-Samaj. 


Modern  Theism.     Ramniohun  Roy' s  successors.     493 

or  vows  to  be  taken  by  all  candidates  for  admission  int(j  ihc 
Theistic  Society. 

By  the  most  important  of  these  declarations  every  member 
of  the  Society  bound  himself  to  abstain  from  idolatry ;  to 
worship  no  created  object,  but  to  worship  through  the  love 
of  God,  and  through  doing  the  works  dear  to  God  (Para- 
brahmani  prltya  tat-priya-karya-sadhanena),  the  Great  God 
the  Creator,  Preserver,  Destroyer  (srishti-sthiti-pralaya-kartri), 
the  Causer  of  emancipation  (mukti-karana),  the  Partless  (nir- 
avayava),  the  One  only  without  a  second  (ekamatradvitiya) ; 
to  lead  holy  lives,  and  to  seek  forgiveness  through  abandon- 
ment of  sin.  At  the  same  time  a  few  short  formulae  of  divine 
worship  (Brahmopasana),  consisting  of  prayers,  invocations, 
hymns,  and  meditations,  were  promulgated  for  use  in  the 
daily  services.     This  took  place  at  the  end  of  1843. 

Pandit  Ram  Chandra  Vidya-bag-ish  was  appointed  minister 
of  the  newly-organized  church,  and  not  long  afterwards 
Debendra-nath,  with  twenty  friends,  solemnly  took  the  oaths 
of  the  new  Theistic  covenant  in  his  presence.  The  year 
1844  may  be  given  as  the  date  of  the  real  commencement 
of  the  first  organized  Theistic  Church  of  India,  hence  after- 
wards called  the  Adi  Brahma-Samaj,  though  at  that  time 
and  until  the  first  secession  it  was  simply  denominated  the 
Calcutta  Brahma-Samaj. 

Three  years  later,  in  1847,  the  number  of  covenanted 
Brfdimas  had  increased  to  seven  hundred  and  sixty-seven. 

But,  as  usual,  with  the  accession  of  new  members,  the 
growing  church  began  to  be  agitated  by  contending  opinions. 
It  was  affirmed  that  the  Vedas  had  never  been  thoroughly 
examined  with  a  view  of  arriving  at  a  just  estimate  of  their 
value  as  an  authoritative  guide  to  truth.  Four  young  Brah- 
mans  were  therefore  sent  to  Benares.  Each  was  commissioned 
to  copy  out  and  study  one  of  the  four  Vedas.  The  result  of 
a  careful  examination  of  the  sacred  books  was,  that  some 
members  of  the  Samaj  maintained  their  authority,  and  even 


494     Modern  Theism.     Ra^nmoJmn  Roy^s  successors. 

their  infallibility,  while  others  rejected  them  as  abounding  in 
error.  A  serious  conflict  of  opinion  continued  for  some  time. 
In  the  end  it  was  decided  by  the  majority,  that  neither  Vedas 
nor  Upanishads  were  to  be  accepted  as  an  infaUible  guide. 
Only  such  precepts  and  ideas  in  them  were  to  be  admitted  as 
harmonized  with  pure  Theistic  truth,  such  truth  resting  on 
the  two  foundations  of  external  nature  and  internal  intuition. 
In  short,  the  religion  of  Indian  Theists  was  held  to  be  a 
religion  of  equilibrium — neither  supported  wholly  by  reason 
on  the  one  hand^  nor  by  blind  faith  on  the  other. 

This  took  place  about  the  year  1 850,  by  which  time  other 
Samajes  had  begun  to  be  established  in  the  provinces,  such 
as  those  at  Midnapur,  Krishnagar,  and  Dacca.  Raj  Narain 
Bose  was  minister  of  the  Midnapur  Samaj  for  many  years, 
when  he  was  Head-master  of  the  government  Zillah  (county) 
school  of  that  place. 

A  new  Theistic  Directory  was  then  put  forth  by  Debendra- 
nath,  called  Brahma-Dharma,  or  '  the  Theistic  Religion.'  It 
contained  a  statement  in  Sanskrit  of  the  four  fundamental 
principles  of  Indian  Theism,  together  with  the  seven  declara- 
tions revised,  and  approved  extracts  from  the  Veda,  Upani- 
shads, and  later  Hindu  scriptures,  as,  for  example,  from  the 
Isopanishad,  Satapatha-Brahmana,  and  Manu.  Selections 
from  these  works  were  thought  to  have  the  advantage  of 
national  association  as  an  instrument  for  the  dissemination  of 
truth.  Otherwise  they  were  not  regarded  as  possessing  any 
peculiar  inspiration,  or  even  any  inherent  superiority  over 
extracts  from  other  good  books. 

Any  one  who  examines  the  whole  compendium  with  im- 
partiality must  come  to  the  conclusion  that,  although  the 
quotations  it  gives  are  pervaded  throughout  by  a  strong 
aroma  of  Vedantic  and  Pantheistic  ideas,  it  marks  an  advance 
in  the  Theistic  movement.  It  presents  us  for  the  first  time 
with  a  definite  exposition  of  Indian  Theistic  doctrine,  which 
may  be  held  by  those  who  reject  Vedantism.     Its  four  funda- 


Modern  Theism.     Rannuohiiii  Roy's  siceccssors.     495 

mental  principles  (called  l^rahma-dharma-vTja)  translated  from 
the  Sanskrit  arc  : — 

I.  —  In  the  beginning,  before  this  Universe  was,  the  One  Supreme 
Being  was  (Brahma  va  ekam  iciam-agra  asit) ;  nothing  else  whatever  was 
(nilnyat  kiiicanasTt)  ;  He  has  created  all  this  universe  (tad  idam  sarvam 
asrijat). 

II. — He  is  eternal  (tadeva  nityam),  intelligent  (jiianam),  infinite  (anan- 
tam),  blissful  (sivam),  self-dcpcndcnt  (sva-tantram),  formless  (nir-avaya- 
vam),  one  only  without  a  second  (ekam  evadvitlyam),  all-pervading 
(sarva-vyapi),  all-governing  (sarva-niyantri),  all-sheltering  (sarvasraya), 
all-knowing  (sarva-vid),  all-powerful  (sarva-saktimat),  unmovable  (dhru- 
vam),  perfect  (puriiam),  and  without  a  parallel  (apratimam). 

III. — By  Worship  of  Him  alone  can  ha])piness  be  secured  in  this  world 
and  the  next  (Ekasya  tasyaivopasanaya  paratrikam  aihikam  da  subham 
bhavati). 

IV. — Love  towards  Him  (Tasmin  prTtis),  and  performing  the  works 
he  loves  (priya-karya-sfidhanain  ca),  constitute  His  worship  (tad-upasa- 
nam  eva). 

Any  one  who  subscribed  to  these  four  principles  was  ad- 
mitted a  member  of  the  Calcutta  Brahma-Samaj.  The  seven 
more  stringent  declarations  were  only  required  of  those  who 
desired  a  more  formal  initiation  into  the  system. 

The  substance  of  this  improved  theistic  teaching  may  be 
thus  summarized  : 

Intuition  and  the  book  of  Nature  form  the  original  basis 
of  the  Brahma's  creed,  but  divine  truth  is  to  be  thankfully 
accepted  from  any  portion  of  the  ancient  Hindu  scriptures 
as  from  any  other  good  books  in  which  it  may  be  contained. 
According  to  the  truth  thus  received,  man  is  led  to  regard 
God  as  his  Heavenly  Father,  endowed  with  a  distinct  person- 
ality, and  with  moral  attributes  befitting  His  nature.  God 
has  never  become  incarnate,  but  he  takes  providential  care  of 
His  creatures.  Prayer  to  Him  is  efificacious.  Repentance  is 
the  only  way  to  atonement,  forgiveness,  and  salvation.  The 
religious  condition  of  man  is  progressive.  Good  works,  charity, 
attainment  of  knowledge,  contemplation,  and  devotion,  are 
the  only  religious  rites.  Penances  and  pilgrimages  are  useless. 
The  only  sacrifice  is  the  sacrifice  of  self,  the  only  place  of 


496     Modci'n  Theism.     RammoJiun  Ro/s  sticcessors. 

pilgrimage  is  the  company  of  the  good,  the  only  true  Temple 
is  the  pure  heart.     There  is  no  distinction  of  castes. 

Yet  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  great  latitude  in  regard  to 
the  maintenance  of  old  national  customs  was  still  allowed, 
and  a  friendly  demeanour  towards  the  national  religion 
encouraged. 

In  fact,  the  Mission  of  the  Calcutta  Brahma-Samaj,  accord- 
ing to  its  president  and  most  able  literary  representative  Raj 
Narain  Bose  \  was  to  fulfil  or  at  least  to  purify  the  old  religion, 
not  to  destroy  it. 

Such  a  compromise  appeared  wholly  unsatisfactory  to  the 
more  thoughtful  members  of  the  Samaj,  especially  to  those 
who  were  beginning  to  be  influenced  by  the  opinions  of  a 
clever  eloquent  young  man,  Keshab  Chandar  Sen,  who  joined 
it  in  1858.  They  felt  that  a  more  complete  Reform  was 
needed  before  the  Samaj  could  deliver  itself  from  all  complicity 
with  degrading  social  customs. 

The  youthful  Keshab  addressed  himself  to  the  task  of 
radical  reform  with  the  ardour  of  a  young  man  full  of  spirit 
and  energy,  who  had  his  knightly  spurs  to  win. 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  we  in  Europe  are  wholly 
unable  to  realize  the  difficulties  which  beset  the  career  of  a 
radical  religious  reformer  in  India.  There,  religious  and  social 
life  are  so  intimately  interwoven — there,  the  ordinary  creed  of 
the  people,  their  debasing  idolatry  and  demoralizing  super- 
stitions, are  so  intertwined  with  the  texture  of  their  daily  life, 
with  their  domestic  manners  and  institutions,  and  even  with 
the  common  law  of  the  land,  that  to  strike  at  the  root  of  the 
national  faith  is  to  subvert  the  very  foundations  of  the  whole 
social  fabric.  Let  a  man  enter  on  the  path  of  progress,  let 
him  abandon  the  ideas  inherited  from  his  parents,  let  him  set 

^  Raj  Narain  Bose  has  rendered  good  service  to  tlie  Adi  Brahma- 
Samaj  by  his  able  writings,  just  as  Mr.  P.  C.  Mozoomdar  has  done  to  the 
later  development  of  Theism  about  to  be  described — the  Brahma-Samaj 
of  India. 


Modcr7i  Theism.     RamnwJiun  Roys  successors.     497 

his  face  against  the  time-honoured  usages  of  his  country,  let 
him  stand  up  boldly  as  the  champion  of  truth,  the  cradicator 
of  error,  the  regenerator  of  a  degenerate  age,  the  purifier  of  a 
corrupt  condition  of  society,  and  what  are  the  consequences  ? 
He  has  to  fight  his  way  through  a  host  of  antagonisms  and 
obstructions,  sufficient  to  appal,  if  not  to  overpower,  a  man  of 
ordinary  courage  and  determination.  The  inveterate  pre- 
judices of  centuries,  deeply-seated  antipathies,  national  pride, 
popular  passion,  a  thousand  vested  interests  of  tradition, 
ignorance,  bigotry,  superstition,  indolence,  priestcraft,  conspire 
to  crush  his  efforts  and  impede  his  advance.  Every  inch  of 
the  ground  is  disputed  by  a  host  of  bitter  antagonists. 
Humiliation,  insult,  threat,  invective,  vituperation  are  heaped 
upon  his  head.  Father,  mother,  wife,  children,  relatives  and 
friends  hold  him  fast  in  their  embraces  or  unite  their  efforts 
to  drag  him  backwards.  No  one  stirs  a  finger  to  help  him 
onwards.  At  length,  by  the  force  of  his  own  resolute 
character,  by  patience  and  conciliation,  by  firmness  and 
gentleness,  by  persuasion  and  earnestness,  by  carrying  people 
with  him  against  their  will,  by  making  his  work  theirs  as 
well  as  his  own,  he  gains  a  few  adherents  ;  for  nowhere  do 
qualities  such  as  these  command  so  much  admiration  as  in 
India.  Then  his  progress  becomes  easier.  But  if  his  attitude 
towards  ancient  creeds  and  social  abuses  continues  that  of  an 
uncompromising  enemy,  he  will  still  have  to  do  battle  at  the 
head  of  a  little  band  of  followers  against  countless  adversaries, 
and  will  only  triumph  over  opposition  in  one  quarter,  to  find 
it  renewed  with  increased  acrimony  and  vehemence  in  other 
directions. 

This  may  be  taken  as  a  description  of  the  early  career  of 
the  third  great  Theistic  Reformer  of  British  India,  Keshab 
Chandar  Sen,  who  was  born  in  1838. 

A  few  particulars  of  Mr.  Sen's  life  ought  here  to  be  given. 
He  is  a  grandson  of  a  well-known  member  of  the  Vaidya 
caste,  Ram  Comul  Sen,  who  was  a  man  of  great  worth,  talent 

K  k 


498     ilTodern  TJicism.     RannnoJmn  Roys  successors. 

and  literary  culture  \  but  a  bigoted  Hindu  of  the  Vaishnava 
school.  The  young  Keshab  was  brought  up  in  an  atmosphere 
of  Hindu  superstition  and  idolatry.  As  might  have  been 
expected,  the  Vishnu-worship  in  which  he  was  trained  pre- 
disposed him  to  emotional  religion  and  to  a  belief  in  one 
supreme  personal  God.  Subsequently  he  received  a  thorough 
English  education  at  the  Presidency  College,  Calcutta.  There, 
of  course,  the  foundations  of  his  family  faith  crumbled  to 
pieces.  It  could  not  bear  collision  with  scientific  truth  as 
imparted  by  European  teachers.  Nor  was  any  new  faith 
built  up  immediately  on  the  ruins  of  the  old.  His  attitude 
towards  all  religion  became  one  of  absolute  indifference. 
Happily,  in  a  character  like  that  of  Keshab,  the  void  caused 
by  the  over-development  of  one  part  of  his  nature  was  not 
long  left  unfilled.  With  a  greater  advance  in  intellectual 
culture  came  a  greater  consciousness  of  spiritual  aspirations, 
and  a  greater  sense  of  dependence  upon  the  Almighty  Ruler 
of  the  Universe.  He  began  to  crave  for  a  knowledge  of  the 
true  God.  One  day,  when  he  was  twenty  years  of  age,  some 
sermons  by  Raj  Narain  Bose  fell  into  his  hands,  and  he  found 
to  his  astonishment  that  a  pure  Theistic  Church  had  been 
already  founded  in  Calcutta.  Without  a  moment's  hesitation 
he  decided  to  enroll  himself  a  member  of  the  Calcutta 
Brahma-Samaj.  This  happened  towards  the  end  of  1858, 
when  he  was  in  his  twentieth  year. 

The  English  culture  and  freedom  of  thought,  not  unmixed 
with  Christian  ideas,  which  Keshab  imported  into  the  Calcutta 
(Adi)  Samaj,  could  not  fail  to  leaven  its  whole  constitution. 
Not  that  Debendra-nath  had  been  uninfluenced  by  similar 
culture  in  his  reorganization  of  the  Brahma-Samaj.  The  fear 
however  was  that  Keshab's  enthusiasm  might  lead  him  to  put 
himself  forward  prematurely.     Happily  his   extreme  youth- 

^  He  was  held  in  great  esteem  by  Prof.  H.  H.  Wilson,  and  was  the 
author  of  a  useful  English  and  Bfngah  dictionary,  to  which  my  own 
lexicography  is  under  some  obligations. 


Modern  Thcisvi .     RainiuoJnin  Roys  sitcccswrs.     499 

fulness  and  inexperience  compelled  him  to  veil  his  own 
individuality.  He  longed  from  the  fust  to  bring  all  the 
impetuosity  of  his  fervid  nature  to  bear  on  the  accomplishment 
of  vast  changes.  He  was  ambitious  of  ]:)enetrating  to  the 
vcr\'  springs  of  social  life  and  altering  their  whole  course. 
Ikit  he  was  sensible  enough  to  perceive  that  he  could  not 
enter  upon  such  a  Herculean  task  without  feeling  his  way  and 
testing  his  powers.  He,  therefore,  commenced  his  mission  as 
a  fellow-worker  with  Debendra-niith,  and  in  due  subordination 
to  him  as  his  recognized  leader.  Their  fellowship  and  co- 
operation lasted  for  about  five  years.  Nothing,  however, 
could  keep  the  enthusiastic  Keshab  long  in  the  background. 
It  was  not  sufficient  for  hirn  that  idolatry  had  been  eliminated 
from  Hindu  usages.  They  remained  Hindu  usages  still.  He 
soon  began  to  urge  a  complete  abolition  of  all  caste-restrictions. 
The  first  change  he  advocated  was  that  all  who  conducted 
the  sei'vices  in  the  Mandir  should  abandon  the  sacred  thread 
(upavlta)  which  distinguished  the  Brahmans  and  higher  castes 
from  the  lower.  But  Debendra-nath,  though  he  consented  to 
give  up  the  sacred  badge  of  caste  in  his  own  case,  declined  to 
force  a  similar  renunciation  upon  others.  Unhappily  this  w^as 
the  commencement  of  a  difference  of  opinion  between  the 
progressive  and  conservative  Reformers,  which  afterwards  led 
to  a  more  complete  rupture. 

Next  to  the  abandonment  of  the  thread  came  the  alteration 
of  the  Sraddha,  or  worship  of  deceased  ancestors — a  rite 
involving  ideas  incompatible  with  the  Brfdima  doctrine  of 
a  future  state.  This  was  followed  by  a  remodelling  of  the 
ritual  at  the  ceremonies  of  birth  (jata-karma,  p.  353),  name- 
giving  (nama-karana,  p.  2>5?))^  ^^'^  cremation  of  the  dead 
(antyeshti,  p.  354).  Then  a  solemn  and  impressive  form  of 
initiation  into  the  Brahma  faith  was  substituted  for  the 
Upanayana,  or  initiatory  rite  of  Brahmanism.  Of  course, 
efforts  were  made  for  the  education  and  elevation  of  women. 
They   were   encouraged   to  join    the    Brrdima-Samaj,   which 

K  k  2 


500     Modern  Thcisiu.     RammoJiiLii  Roys  successors. 

many  eventually  did  under  the  name  of  Brahmikas,  worship- 
ping at  first  cither  behind  screens,  or  in  a  separate  room. 

A  still  more  important  matter  was  the  reform  of  marriage 
customs.  Vast  difficulties  beset  any  reform  in  this  direction. 
Marriage  is  the  most  ancient,  sacred,  and  inviolable  of  all 
Hindu  institutions,  and  its  due  performance  the  most  com- 
plicated of  all  religious  acts.  It  involves  intricate  questions 
of  caste,  creed,  property,  family  usage,  consanguinity,  and 
age.  To  remodel  the  institution  of  marriage  is  to  reorganize 
the  whole  constitution  of  Indian  society,  and  to  create,  so  to 
speak,  an  entirely  new  social  atmosphere.  The  first  change 
advocated  by  the  Reformers  had  reference  to  the  abolition  of 
child-marriages.  Nothing  has  tended  to  the  physical  and 
moral  deterioration  of  the  people  so  much  as  child-marriage. 
It  has  not  only  resulted  in  excessive  population,  rapidly 
multiplying  till  reduced  to  so  low  a  standard  of  physical 
and  moral  stamina  that  every  failure  of  crops  adds  demoral- 
ization to  starvation.  It  is  an  ever-present  source  of  weak- 
ness and  impoverishment,  destructive  of  all  national  vigour, 
and  fatal  to  the  development  of  national  thrift  and  economy. 
The  progressive  Reformers  felt  that  until  this  evil  was  re- 
moved there  could  be  no  hope  of  India's  regeneration. 

Of  course,  another  reform  aimed  at  had  reference  to  poly- 
gamy. No  man  was  to  be  allowed  more  than  one  wife. 
Then  widows  were  to  be  released  from  enforced  celibacy. 
And  here,  in  justice  to  Raj  Narain  Bose,  it  should  be  stated 
that  he  was  the  first  to  introduce  the  remarriage  of  widows 
into  his  family ;  a  reform  for  which  the  inhabitants  of  the 
village  in  which  he  was  born  threatened  to  stone  him  to 
death.  As  to  the  marriage  ceremony  itself,  all  semblance  of 
idolatrous  worship,  all  foolish  ritual,  all  noisy  music,  needless 
display  and  unnecessary  expense  caused  by  spreading  the 
festivities  over  many  days  were  to  be  eliminated.  Debendra- 
nath  himself  was  induced  to  set  the  example  of  celebrating 
a  nuptial  ceremony  in  his  own  family  according  to  this  simple 


Modern  Theism.     Ranwwhun  Roy  s  successors.     501 

Brahmic  form.  His  second  daughter  was  engaged  to  be 
married  to  Babu  H.  N.  Mukerjea.  The  rite  was  performed 
on  the  26th  of  July,  itS6i,  quietly,  solemnly,  simply,  and 
without  protracted  festivities,  in  the  presence  of  nearly  two 
lumdred  co-religionists.  This  was  the  first  Brfdimic  marriage. 
A  still  more  momentous  reform  was  attempted  by  Keshab 
Chandar  Sen  when  he  performed  a  marriage  ceremony 
between  two  persons  of  different  castes  in  August,  1864. 
An  innovation  so  revolutionary  gave  great  dissatisfaction  to 
Debendra-nath.  In  fact,  IMr.  Sen,  notwithstanding  the  real 
good  he  had  effected  by  his  influence,  example,  and  personal 
efforts,  found  himself  hampered  by  his  connexion  with  the 
too  conservative  Calcutta  Adi-Samaj.  He  was  like  a  man 
working  m  chains.  He  felt  himself  powerless  to  penetrate 
beneath  the  outer  crust  of  the  social  fabric.  The  old  caste- 
customs,  the  old  superstitious  rites,  were  still  practised  by 
a  large  number  of  Theists,  while  others  who  professed  sym- 
pathy with  the  advanced  Reformer,  and  adopted  his  opinions 
in  public,  secretly  reverted  to  their  old  ways.  It  was  not  to 
be  expected  that  a  man  of  Mr.  Sen's  temperament  would 
long  acquiesce  in  merely  superficial  changes  and  patchy 
half-finished  reformations.  He  was  willing  to  accept  half 
measures  as  an  instalment.  But  nothing  short  of  a  thorough 
reconstruction  of  the  whole  religious  and  social  fabric  could 
afford  him  permanent  satisfaction.  He  was  bent  on  laying 
the  axe  to  the  very  root  of  the  tree.  He  felt  his  own  mission 
to  be  very  different  from  that  of  Debendra-nath.  He  was  to 
destroy  rather  than  to  renovate  the  old  Vedic  system  with  all 
its  train  of  ceremonial  rites  and  observances. 

Of  course,  he  no  sooner  gave  up  all  idea  of  compromise 
than  instantly  he  found  himself  plunged  in  a  slough  of 
obstruction.  Difficulties  and  opposition  met  him  at  every 
turn.  At  length,  in  February,  1865,  the  inevitable  crisis 
arrived.  Keshab  Chandar  Sen  with  a  large  number  of  the 
younger  members  of  the    Samaj    formed    themselves  into  a 


502     Modern  Theism.     RaDimoJmn  Roys  successors, 

separate  body  of  advanced  or  progressive  reformers,  and 
seceded  from  the  old  Society,  leaving  behind  them  all  its 
accumulated  property.  It  was  not,  however,  till  November, 
i(S66,  that  they  were  able  to  organize  themselves  into  a  new 
Theistic  Church  called  the  Brahma-Samaj  of  India  (Bhara- 
tavarshlya  Brahma-Samaj  ^),  a  church  which  gloried  in  having 
broken  entirely  with  Brahmanism,  and  severed  every  link 
which  connected  it  with  the  national  religion. 

At  a  meeting  held  on  November  nth,  1866,  the  day  of 
the  incorporation  of  the  new  society,  Mr.  Sen  announced  that 
the  aim  of  the  new  Church  would  be  to  unite  all  Brahmas 
into  one  body,  to  reduce  their  labours  to  a  well-organized 
system  of  co-operation,  and  to  establish  a  central  metropo- 
litan Brahma-Samaj  of  all  India,  to  which  all  other  Samajcs 
throughout  the  country  might  be  affiliated,  or  with  which 
they  might  establish  friendly  relations.  This  idea  was  not  a 
new  one.  An  effort  had  been  made  in  1864  to  establish 
a  General  Representative  Assembly  or  Council  of  all  the 
existing  Brahma  Samajes.  A  meeting  was  then  convened, 
and  twenty-eight  out  of  the  existing  fifty  Samajes  sent  repre- 
sentatives, but  little  further  was  done.  Nor  did  Mr.  Sen 
ever  succeed  in  making  his  own  Samaj  a  centre  of  union  and 
authority,  though  for  a  long  time  his  talents  as  an  orator 
secured  him  a  position  as  chief  leader  of  the  Brahma  com- 
munity. 

The  first  stone  of  the  new  Mandir  or  place  of  worship  of 
the  Brahma-Samaj  of  India  was  laid  on  the  23rd  of  January, 

1868,  but  the  building  was  not  opened  until  August  (Bhadra), 

1869.  As  might  have  been  expected,  the  new  Samaj  ex- 
hibited from  its  first  foundation  a  decided  reflection  of  its 
founder's  individuality.  He  had  imbibed  Vaishnava  ideas 
with    his    earliest    impressions.      Yet    the    peculiar   vein    of 


'  This  new  Church  has  been  sometimes  called  the  progressive  Brahma- 
Samaj. 


Modern  Theism.     Ramnwhiin  Roys  successors.     503 

IliiulQ  theology  which  permeated  his  miiul  only  operated 
beneficially.  The  introduction  of  faith  (bhakti),  emotional 
religion,  and  devotional  fervour  into  the  Bnlhma  system  was 
a  real  advantage.  It  infused  warmth  and  light  into  a  cold 
inanimate  Theology,  and  brought  the  latest  development  of 
Indian  Theism  into  closer  harmony  with  Christian  ideas. 

It  remains  to  describe  more  fully  the  nature  of  that  de- 
velopment. No  sooner  was  Brahmanism  finally  discarded  than 
it  became  necessary  to  formulate  more  definite  articles  of 
faith.  Briefly  the  new  creed  might  have  been  described  as 
'the  Fatherhood  of  God  and  the  Brotherhood  of  Man.'  Its 
most  essential  points  are  as  follow : — 

God  is  the  first  cause  of  the  Universe.  By  His  will  He  created  all 
objects  out  of  nothin;^  and  continually  upholds  them.  He  is  spirit,  not 
matter.  He  is  perfect,  infinite,  all-powerful,  all-mcrcifut,  all-holy.  He  is 
our  Father,  Preserver,  Master,  King,  and  Saviour. 

The  soul  is  immortal.  Death  is  only  the  dissolution  of  the  body. 
There  is  no  new  birth  after  death  ;  the  future  life  is  a  continuation  and 
development  of  the  present  life.  The  men  that  now  live  are  the  embryos 
of  the  men  that  are  to  be. 

The  true  scriptures  are  two, — the  volume  of  nature,  and  the  natural 
ideas  implanted  in  the  mind.  The  wisdom,  power,  and  mercy  of  the 
Creator  are  written  on  the  Universe.  All  ideas  about  immortality  and 
morality  are  primitive  convictions  rooted  in  the  constitution  of  man. 

God  Himself  never  becomes  man  by  putting  on  a  human  body.  His 
divinity  dwells  in  every  man,  and  is  displayed  more  vividly  in  some. 
Moses,  Jesus  Christ,  Muhammad,  Nanak,  Caitanya,  and  other  great 
Teachers,  appeared  at  special  times,  and  conferred  vast  benefits  on  the 
world.     They  are  entitled  to  universal  gratitude  and  love. 

The  Brahma  religion  is  distinct  from  all  other  systems  of  religion  ;  yet 
it  is  the  essence  of  all.  It  is  not  hostile  to  other  creeds.  What  is  true 
in  them  it  accepts.  It  is  based  on  the  constitution  of  man,  and  is,  there- 
fore, eternal  and  universal.     It  is  not  confined  to  age  or  country. 

All  mankind  are  of  one  brotherhood.  The  Brahma  religion  recognizes 
no  distinction  between  high  and  low  caste.  It  is  the  aim  of  this  religion 
to  bind  all  mankind  into  one  family. 

Duties  are  of  four  kinds:  (i)  Duties  towards  Cod — such  as  belief  in 
Him,  love,  worship,  and  service;  (2)  \}\.\\l\ffi  towards  self— %wc\\  as  pre- 
servation of  bodily  health,  acquisition  of  knowledge,  sanctification  of 
soul  ;  (3)  Duties  towards  ot/iers—such  as  veracity,  justice,  gratitude,  the 
promotion  of  the  welfare  of  all  mankind  ;  (4)  Duties  towards  aiiii/ials 
and  inferior  creatures — such  as  kind  treatment. 


504     Modern  Theism.     RammoJmn  Roys  successors. 

Every  sinner  must  suffer  the  consequences  of  his  own  sins  sooner 
or  later,  in  this  world  or  the  next.  Man  must  labour  after  holiness 
by  the  worship  of  God,  by  subjugation  of  the  passions,  by  repentance, 
by  the  study  of  nature  and  of  good  books,  by  good  company  and  by 
solitary  contemplation.  These  will  lead  through  the  action  of  God's 
grace  to  salvation. 

Salvation  is  deliverance  of  the  soul  from  the  root  of  corruption,  and  its 
perpetual  growth  in  purity.  Such  growth  continues  through  all  eternity, 
and  the  soul  becomes  more  and  more  godly  and  happy  in  Him  who  is  the 
fountain  of  infinite  holiness  and  joy.  The  companionship  of  God  is  the 
Indian  Theists'  heaven. 

With  regard  to  the  worship  of  God,  it  was  declared  to  be 
'  a  wholly  spiritual  act.' 

The  form  of  divine  service  was  as  follows  : — First  a  hymn  ; 

then    an    invocation    of   God    by  the    minister,  followed   by 

another    hymn;    then    adoration    of    God,    chanted   by   the 

whole  congregation  together,  and  continued  by  the  minister 

alone  ;  then  silent  communion  for  some  minutes.     Then  the 

following  united  prayer  \  chanted  by  the  whole  congregation 

standing : — 

*  Lead  us,  O  God  !  from  untruth  to  truth,  from  darkness  to  light,  from 
death  to  immortality.  O  !  thou  Father  of  truth,  reveal  thyself  before  us. 
Thou  art  merciful,  do  thou  protect  us  always  in  thy  unbounded  goodness. 
Peace!  Peace!  Peace!' 

Then  a  prayer  for  the  well-being  of  the  whole  world  by  the 
minister  alone  standing,  succeeded  by  another  hymn,  and 
by  a  recitation  of  texts  from  Hindi!  and  other  scriptures. 
Finally,  a  sermon,  followed  by  a  prayer,  a  benediction,  and 
a  hymn. 

Services  of  this  kind  still  take  place — generally  on  Sundays, 
and  often  on  a  week-day  in  addition.  There  are  also  grand 
anniversary  festivals  to  celebrate  the  foundation  of  the  Brahma 
Church.  The  chief  festival,  called  Maghotsab  (Maghotsava), 
on  the  23rd  of  January  (nth  of  Magha),  is  kept  by  all  the 
Samajes  in  commemoration  of  the  founding  of  monotheistic 
worship  by  Rammohun   Roy.      Another,  called  Bhadrotsab 

^  This  was  taken  from  the  form  used  by  the  Adi  Brahma-Samaj. 


Modern  Theism.     Rdmniohun  Roys  successors.     505 

(Bhadrotsava),  is  held  by  the  Bndima-Samaj  of  India  in 
celebration  of  the  opening  of  the  Mandir  in  August,  1869. 
Solemn  initiation  services  for  the  admission  of  new  members 
arc  also  performed.  They  correspond  in  an  interesting 
manner  to  our  Confirmation  services. 

Clearly  it  would  be  easy  to  prove  that  the  advanced 
Indian  Reformers,  trained  and  educated  by  us,  and  imbued 
unconsciously  with  Western  theological  ideas,  have  borrowed 
largely  from  our  Christian  system  in  formulating  their  own 
creed.  The  points  of  agreement  are  too  obvious  to  need 
indicating.  One  noteworthy  point  of  contact  with  Chris- 
tianity is  the  active  missionary  spirit  displayed  by  progres- 
sive Brrdimas,  which  indeed  was  originated  by  the  members 
of  the  Adi-Samaj.  Such  a  spirit  is,  of  course,  essential  to 
the  growth  and  vitality  of  all  new  systems.  Keshab  Chandar 
Sen  has  made  several  Missionary  tours  in  India,  and  in  1870 
he  came  to  England,  giving  out  that  his  mission  was  to 
excite  the  interest  of  Englishmen  in  the  religious,  social, 
and  political  progress  of  his  fellow-countrymen.  Here  he 
visited  fourteen  of  the  chief  towns  of  England  and  Scotland, 
and  conducted  religious  services  in  the  pulpits  of  Baptist, 
Congregational,  and  Unitarian  chapels.  Me  preached  to 
large  congregations  in  East  London,  and  addressed  seventy 
meetings  in  different  places  in  behalf  of  such  objects  as 
Temperance,  Peace,  Reformatories,  Ragged  Schools,  and 
general  education.  He  had  interviews  with  Her  Majesty 
and  several  eminent  Statesmen. 

And  what  were  the  impressions  he  formed  of  Christian 
religious  life  and  doctrine  in  England?  It  may  do  us  no 
harm  to  listen  once  more  to  the  Hindu  Theist's  utterances 
before  he  left  our  shores  : — 

'  One  institution,'  he  said,  *  in  England  I  have  looked  upon  with  pecu- 
liar feelings  of  delight — the  happy  English  home,  in  which  the  utmost 
warmth  and  cordiality  of  aflection,  and  sympathy,  are  mingled  with  the 
highest  moral  and  religious  restraint  and  discipline.  The  spirit  of  prayer 
and   worship   seems   mixed   up   with   daily  household   duties,  and   the 


5o6     Modern  Theism.     Ravimohiin  Roys  successors. 

influence  of  the  spirit  of  Christ  is  manifest  in  domestic  concerns.'  *  Yet,' 
he  added,  'it  grieves  me  to  find  that  the  once  crucified  Jesus  is  crucified 
hundreds  of  times  every  day  in  the  midst  of  Christendom.  The  Christian 
world  has  not  imbibed  Christ's  spirit.' 

At  Birmingham  he  said  : — 

'  Since  my  arrival  in  England  I  have  found  myself  incessantly  sur- 
rounded by  various  religious  denominations,  professing  to  be  Christians, 
Methinks  I  have  come  into  a  vast  market.  Every  sect  is  like  a  small 
shop  where  a  peculiar  kind  of  Christianity  is  offered  for  sale.  As  I  go 
from  door  to  door,  from  shop  to  shop — each  sect  steps  forward  and  offers 
for  my  acceptance  its  own  interpretations  of  the  Bible,  and  its  own 
peculiar  Christian  beliefs.  I  cannot  but  feel  perplexed  and  even  amused 
amidst  countless  and  quarrelling  sects.  It  appears  to  me,  and  has  always 
appeared  to  me,  that  no  Christian  nation  on  earth  represents  fully  and 
thoroughly  Christ's  idea  of  the  kingdom  of  God.  I  do  believe,  and  I 
must  candidly  say,  that  no  Christian  sect  puts  forth  the  genuine  and 
full  Christ  as  he  was  and  as  he  is,  but,  in  some  cases,  a  mutilated, 
disfigured  Christ,  and,  what  is  more  shameful,  in  many  cases,  a  counter- 
feit Christ.  Now,  I  wish  to  say  that  I  have  not  comelo  England  as  one 
who  has  yet  to  find  Christ.  When  the  Roman  Catholic,  the  Protestant, 
the  Unitariar),  the  Trinitarian,  the  Broad  Church,  the  Low  Church,  the 
High  Church,  all  come  round  me,  and  offer  me  their  respective  Christs,  I 
desire  to  say  to  one  and  all  :  "  Think  you  that  I  have  no  Christ  within 
me  ?  Though  an  Indian,  I  can  still  humbly  say,  thank  God  that  I  have 
my  Christ."  ' 

This  remarkable  statement  has  become  invested  with  far 
deeper  significance  and  interest  since  the  publication  of  Mr. 
Sen's  last  year's  lecture,  on  the  subject  '  India  asks,  Who  is 
Christ.'*'  It  might  have  been  expected  that  his  English  visit 
would  have  brought  his  Theism  into  closer  affinity  with 
Christian  dogma.  But  such  was  not  really  the  case.  I  may 
state,  however,  as  an  interesting  fact,  that  two  of  his  Hindu 
travelling  companions  were  afterwards  baptized. 

On  his  return  to  India  Mr.  Sen  applied  himself  zealously  to 
the  work  of  social  reform,  and  at  once  started  what  was  called 
'  The  Indian  Reform  Association '  for  female  improvement, 
for  the  promotion  of  education  among  men  and  women,  for 
the  suppression  of  intemperance,  and  generally  for  the  social 
and  moral  reformation  of  the  people  of  India,  This  society, 
open  to  all  classes  and  creeds,  was  founded  November  2nd, 


Modern  Thcisvi.     Ranniioluin  Roy  s  successors.     507 

1H70,  and  a  female  Normal  and  Adult  School  was  opened 
in  1H71, 

The  most  important  Reform  of  all — that  rclatinf^  to  mar- 
riage— to  which  Mr.  Sen's  efforts  had  already  been  directed, 
had  not  made  much  progress.  The  example  so  well  set  by 
the  marriage  of  Debendra-nath  Tagore's  daughter  in  1  tS6  1  had 
created  hopes  of  a  better  state  of  things,  but  little  real  advance 
had  been  achieved.  It  is  true  that  similar  marriages  had  fol- 
lowed, but  the  legality  of  such  marriages  was  disputed,  though 
a  form  of  ritual  had  been  adopted  which  was  thought  to  be 
sufficiently  conformable  to  Hindu  usage  to  insure  their  va- 
lidit}'.  It  was  not  encouraging  that  between  i<S64  and  1S67 
only  seven  or  eight  Adi  Samaj  Brahma  marriages  and  four  or 
five  Progressive  Brfdima  intermarriages  between  persons  of 
different  castes  had  been  solemnized.  Nor  had  much  success 
attended  the  attempt  to  prevent  early  marriages.  Mr.  Sen 
and  his  followers  now  threw  themselves  more  vigorously  than 
ever  into  the  marriage-reform  movement.  The  best  medical 
opinions  were  sought,  and  the  proper  marriageable  age  fixed. 
But  the  most  important  step  was  to  memorialize  the  Govern- 
ment for  a  new  Marriage  Act,  to  relieve  Brahmas  from  their 
disability  to  contract  legal  marriages  according  to  their  own 
forms.  Much  agitation  ensued.  The  native  mind  became 
greatly  excited,  and  Indian  society  was  stirred  to  its  depths 
by  a  conflict  of  opinion  on  a  matter  which  affected  the  very 
framework  of  its  whole  structure  and  composition. 

At  length  a  Bill  was  drawn  up  by  Sir  Henry  Maine,  and 
improved  upon  by  his  successor  Mr.  Stephen  (now  Sir  Fitz- 
james  Stephen,  the  Judge),  which  pleased  no  one.  It  was 
violently  opposed  not  only  by  the  orthodox  Brahmans,  but 
by  the  more  conservative  Theists.  The  struggle  was  pro- 
tracted with  much  bitterness  on  the  part  of  the  natives  for 
four  years.  Finally,  after  many  ineffectual  attempts  at  ob- 
taining a  general  agreement  of  opinion,  a  third  Bill  was 
elaborated  by  Mr.  Stephen,  and  under  his  able  management 


5o8     Modem  Theism.     Rdiwnohiin  Roys  successors. 

the  Native  Marriage  Act  became  law  on  the  22nd  of  March, 
1872.     It  commences  thus  : — 

'  Whereas  it  is  expedient  to  provide  a  form  of  marriage  for  persons  who 
do  not  profess  the  Christian,  Jewish,  Hindu,  Muhammadan,  ParsI,  Bud- 
dhist, Sikh  or  Jaina  religion,  and  to  legahze  certain  marriages  the  vahdity 
of  which  is  doubtful  ;  it  is  hereby  enacted,'  etc. 

The  Act,  in  fact,  introduced  for  the  first  time  the  insti- 
tution of  civil  marriage  into  Hindu  society.  It  sanctioned 
matrimonial  union  without  any  necessary  religious  ceremo- 
nial. It  legalized  marriages  between  different  castes.  It 
fixed  the  minimum  age  for  a  bridegroom  at  18  and  of  a 
bride  at  14,  but  required  the  written  consent  of  parents  or 
guardians  when  either  party  was  under  21.  It  prevented  the 
marriage  of  persons  within  certain  degrees  of  consanguinity. 
It  prohibited  bigamy,  and  permitted  the  remarriage  of  Indian 
widows. 

After  the  passing  of  this  Act  fifty-eight  marriages  took 
place  in  the  eight  and  a  half  years  ending  August,  1879, 
against  fifty-one  in  the  ten  and  a  half  years  which  preceded 
its  ratification.  The  average  of  widow  marriages  has  not  as 
yet  been  greatly  increased  by  the  passing  of  the  Act.  The 
same  may  be  said  of  intermarriages  between  persons  of  dif- 
ferent castes,  though  these  are  said  to  have  become  more 
numerous  during  the  Prince  of  Wales's  visit.  All  the  mar- 
riages which  took  place  before  the  Act  might  have  been 
registered  retrospectively,  and  in  this  manner  legalized,  but 
only  twenty-one  were  so  registered.  Singularly  enough,  too, 
even  to  this  day,  some  Hindu  Theists  continue  to  prefer  being 
married  according  to  Brahmic  rites,  without  availing  them- 
selves of  the  Act.  There  appears  to  be  a  dislike  to  the 
Registrar,  as  if  he  were  required  to  take  the  place  of  the 
minister  of  religion,  whereas  he  simply  witnesses  the  contract 
between  the  bride  and  bridegroom,  and  listens  to  the  words 
by  which  they  bind  themselves  to  matrimonial  union.  Some 
Theists  also  object  to  the  categorical  repudiation  of  the  Hindu 


Modern  Theism.     Ranwiohiin  Roy  s  siieeessors.     509 

religion  which  must  precede  the  performance  of  the  civil  mar- 
riage, considering  that  because  they  arc  Brahmas  they  are 
not,  therefore,  un-Hinduized. 

Yet,  it  cannot  be  doubted  that  Mr.  Sen  and  his  followers 
deserve  the  gratitude  of  their  fellow-countrymen  for  their 
labours  in  agitating  for  and  obtaining  the  ratification  of  so 
useful  an  Act.  At  any  rate  the  events  of  the  year  \ '('>'] z 
must  always  constitute  an  epoch  in  the  history  of  the  reform- 
ing movement. 

For  some  time  afterwards  the  Adi  Brahma-Samaj  led  by 
Debendra-nath,  and  the  Brrdima-Samaj  of  India  under  Keshab 
Chandar  Sen,  achieved  good  work  in  their  respective  spheres, 
and  in  not  unfriendly  co-operation  with  each  other.  The  two 
leaders,  though  very  different  in  character,  were  both  men  of 
unusual  ability,  and  both  penetrated  by  a  sincere  desire  for 
the  regeneration  of  India.  Each  Samaj,  too,  had  its  able 
Secretary  and  Writer,  and  Adi-Samaj  in  Raj  Narain  Bose, 
and  the  more  Progressive  Samaj  in  Mr.  Sen's  cousin  Pratap 
Chandar  Mozoomdar^  ]\Ioreover,  the  Conservative  Samaj 
had  its  literary  organ  in  the  Tattva-bodhinI  patrika,  and  the 
Progressive  in  a  daily  newspaper  called  'The  Indian  Mirror.' 

No  better  proof  of  the  activity  of  the  two  societies  could  be 
given  than  the  success  of  their  missionary  operations,  l^y  the 
end  of  1877  the  number  of  Brahma  Samajes  scattered  through- 
out India,  including  Assam,  had  increased  to  a  hundred 
and  seven,  some  following  the  Conservative  pattern,  and 
some  the  Progressive.  In  1H75  fresh  attempts  were  made  to 
establish  a  general  representative  Council  of  all  the  Samajes, 
and  one  or  two  meetings  were  held,  but  no  definite  scheme 
has  yet  been  matured. 

Meanwhile,    lamentable   dissensions    leading   to   a   serious 

'  This  gentleman  has  been  in  England  for  three  or  four  months  this 
year  (1883).  He  kindly  called  to  see  me  at  Oxford  and  much  impressed 
me  by  his  conversation.  I  hope  to  give  an  accqunt  of  my  inlcrviosv  with 
him  in  a  future  volume.  He  has  lately  published  a  very  interesting 
summary  of  the  doctrines  of  his  Samaj. 


5 1 o     Modern  Theism.     Rdmmohun  Roys  successors. 

schism  have  taken  place  in  the  Progressive  Brahma-Samaj. 
Without  doubt  the  career  of  this  Samaj  continued  for  several 
years  to  be  one  of  real  progress.  It  did  sterling  work  in 
propagating  its  own  reforming  principles.  It  sent  forth 
earnest  missionaries  to  all  parts  of  India.  It  put  forth  an 
ably  written  Sunday  edition  of  its  daily  newspaper  the  Indian 
Mirror  \  It  encouraged  fervour  of  faith  and  devotion  (bhakti) 
to  such  an  extent  that  it  was  accused  of  making  religion  an 
affair  of  mere  emotion  and  excitement.  One  direction  in 
which  the  devotional  side  of  the  movement  developed  itself 
was  in  the  rapturous  singing  of  hymns  in  chorus  (sarnklrtana), 
sometimes  performed  in  procession  through  the  streets. 
Another  form  of  development  was  the  establishment  of 
Brahmotsavas,  or  periodical  religious  festivals  as  seasons  of 
special  prayer,  faith,  and  rejoicing.  Besides  all  this,  many 
members  of  the  Society  were  remarkable  for  austerity  of  life, 
and  the  Samaj  had  a  niche  for  those  who  gave  themselves  up 
to  severe  self-discipline  and  asceticism  (Vairagya). 

The  rock  on  which  it  split  was  its  too  unquestioning 
submission  to  the  commanding  ability  of  its  leader.  Keshab 
Chandar  Sen  had  fought  his  way  through  difficulties,  hard- 
ships and  perils,  with  indomitable  energy,  but  was  not  prepared 
for  an  unsuspected  danger — the  danger  of  success — the  danger 
that  too  much  praise  would  be  lavished  on  the  work  he  had 
accomplished.  For  many  years  his  daily  path  had  certainly 
not  led  him  through  clover ;  nor  had  his  nightly  rest  been 
taken  on  a  bed  of  roses.  Nowhere  is  eminent  ability  wor- 
shipped with  more  fervour  than  in  India.  So  conspicuous 
were  Mr.  Sen's  talents  that  he  soon  became  the  object  of  a 
kind  of  adoration.     He  was  even  accused  of  accepting  divine 

*  Besides  the  'Indian  Mirror'  the  Stilabh  StifJiac/idr  {' Cheap  News') 
and  Dharina-tatt7<a,  '  Religious  Truth,'  have  long  been  exponents  of  Mr. 
Sen's  teaching.  Mr.  Mozoomdar's  '  Theistic  Annual,' and  his  'Thcistic 
Quarterly  Review'  which  has  lately  taken  its  place,  are  more  recent 
advocates  on  the  same  side. 


Modern  TJicisDi.     RaDivwhun  Roys  successors.     5  1 1 

honours.  This,  of  course,  he  denied,  and  his  followers  have 
always  indignantly  repelled  the  charge,  but  his  old  Vaishnava 
training  was  not  without  its  influence  on  ■  his  own  estimate 
of  his  own  mission  and  office.  He  certainly  supposed  himself 
to  be  in  some  special  manner  a  partaker  of  divine  gifts.  Iwen 
in  his  address,  delivered  so  recently  as  January,  1^79,  though 
he  answers  the  question,  'Am  I  an  inspired  prophet?'  in  the 
negative,  he  lays  claim  to  a  kind  of  direct  inspiration.  He 
ileclares  that  he  has  had  visions^  of  John  the  Baptist,  Jesus 
Christ,  and  St.  Paul,  who  all  favoured  him  with  personal 
communications,  that  the  Lord  said  he  was  to  have  perennial 
inspiration  from  heaven,  that  all  his  actions  were  regulated  by 
divine  command  (adesa),  and  that  men  should  remember  that 
to  protest  against  the  cause  which  he  upheld  was  to  protest 
against  the  dispensations  of  God  Almighty. 

Then,  again,  Keshab  Chandar  Sen  was  not  merely  an 
autocrat  among  his  own  people  in  matters  of  faith  and 
doctrine.  He  was  the  sole  administrator  of  the  affairs  of 
the  Society,  and  ruled  it  with  the  rod  of  an  irresponsible 
dictator.  People  began  to  complain  that  the  Progressive 
I5rahma-Samaj  was  without  a  constitutional  government.  It 
had  no  freedom  of  discussion  in  the  management  of  its  own 
affairs.  Keshab  Chandar  Sen  was  not  only  its  Bishop,  Priest, 
and  Deacon  all  in  one.  He  was  a  kind  of  Pone  -,  from  whose 
decision  there  was  no  appeal. 

^  A  great  part  of  the  matter  in  this  chapter  was  delivered  by  me  before 
the  Royal  Asiatic  Society  and  printed  in  the  Journal  of  that  Society. 
A  Brahma  Missionaiy  Conference  held  on  Dec.  22,  1880,  commissioned 
tlie  brother  of  Mr.  Sen  to  write  me  a  letter  caliinjf  in  question  some  of 
my  statements.  In  that  letter  the  members  of  the  Conference  object  to 
the  expression  '  visions,'  and  declare  that  on  the  occasion  here  alluded 
to  Mr.  Sen  only  meant  to  use  metaphorical  expressions.  Further,  they 
assert  that  Mr.  Sen  is  not  regarded  by  them  as  a  Pope,  but  only  as  an 
inspired  apostle  commissioned  by  God. 

^  Raj  Narain  Bose  considers  that  Mr.  Sen  is  justly  amenable  to  this 
charge,  as  he  (Mr.  Sen)  brought  the  same  charge  against  Debcndra-nath 
at  the  time  of  the  schism. 


5 1 2     Modern  Theism.     Ranwiohnn  Roys  successors. 

While  all  these  elements  of  discontent  were  at  work,  a 
most  unexpected  revelation  took  place,  the  effect  of  which 
was  to  precipitate  the  disruption  of  the  Samaj,  It  turned 
out,  in  fact,  that  Keshab  Chandar  Sen,  with  all  his  almost 
superhuman  eloquence,  ability,  and  genius,  was  nothing  after 
all  but  a  plain  human  being,  with  very  human  infirmities. 
It  appears  that  as  early  as  August,  1877,  it  began  to  be 
anxiously  whispered  that  the  great  social  Reformer  was 
likely  to  sacrifice  his  own  cherished  principles  at  the  altar  of 
ambition.  He,  who  had  denounced  early  marriages  as  the 
curse  of  India,  was  said  to  be  inclined  to  accept  an  offer  of 
marriage  for  his  own  daughter  not  yet  fourteen,  from  the 
young  Maharaja  of  Kuch  Behar  not  yet  sixteen  years  of  age. 
The  rumour  proved  to  be  too  true,  and  the  Indian  Mirror  of 
February  9,  1878,  formally  announced  that  the  marriage  had 
been  arranged.  Protests  from  every  conceivable  quarter 
poured  in  upon  the  great  social  Reformer,  but  they  were  not 
only  unheeded,  they  v/ere  absolutely  ignored.  The  marriage 
ceremony^  took  place  on  March  6,  1878,  and  not  without 
idolatrous  rites  on  the  bride's  side,  though  these  were  not 
performed  in  the  presence  of  Mr.  Sen  himself^.  In  point 
of  fact,  the  performance  of  certain  ceremonies — such  as  the 
Homa,  or  fire-oblation — was  necessary  to  secure  the  validity 
of  the  marriage  in  a  Native  State  protected  by  our  Govern- 
ment, but  not  subject  to  the  operation  of  the  Marriage  Act. 
Immediately  after  the  wedding  the  young  Maharaja  set  out 


'  The  Missionary  Conference  of  Dec.  22,  1880,  commissioned  Mr.  Sen 
to  inform  me  that  this  ceremony  was  only  a  betrothal  and  that  the  parties 
did  not  live  together  as  man  and  wife  till  a  final  ceremony  had  been  per- 
formed in  the  Brahma  Mandir  on  Oct.  20,  1880.  But  the  ceremony  of 
March  6  was  surely  the  legal  ceremony. 

^  The  Indian  Mirror  of  March  17,  1878,  informed  its  readers  that 
'  though  the  Raja's  Purohits,  who  were  orthodox  Brahmins,  were  allowed 
to  officiate  at  the  ceremony,  the  Homa  was  not  performed  diiri)i<r  the 
marriage  ;  but  after  the  bride  and  her  party  left  the  place.  The  prin- 
ciples of  Brahma  marriage  were  Ixircly  preserved.' 


JModcrn   T/icisju.     RamnwJnin  Roys  successors.     5  1 3 

for  England,  and  the  bridegroom  and  bride  did  not  live 
together  as  man  and  wife  till  a  final  ceremony  hatl  been 
performed  on  Oct.  20,  iStSo. 

Subsequently  the  Dharma-tattva  and  the  Indian  Mirror 
published  an  elaborate  justification  of  Mr.  Sen's  conduct. 
The  defence  set  up  was  that  Mr.  Sen  had  no  choice  in  the 
matter.  He  had  acted,  it  was  said — as  was  said  of  Muhammad 
of  old — under  divine  command  (adcsa),  and  in  obedience  to 
God's  will.  Moreover,  it  was  contended  that  the  marriage  of 
his  daughter  with  a  Maharaja  had  dealt  a  blow  at  caste- 
marriages,  while  the  propagation  of  Theistic  opinions  in  Kuch 
Bchar  and  other  Native  States  was  likely  to  be  materially 
promoted.  Another  line  of  defence  taken  was  that  Keshab 
Chandar  Sen's  mission  had  always  been  that  of  a  religious 
and  not  secular  Reformer. 

Mr.  Sen  himself  has  made  extraordinary  efforts  to  restore 
his  own  prestige  by  the  elaboration  of  novel  ideas.  The  year 
1879  was  signalized  by  the  institution  of  an  order  of  professed 
teachers  of  religion,  called  Adhyapakas.  Four  teachers  were 
ordained  by  Mr.  Sen  on  September  7,  1879,  among  whom  was 
Mr.  Mozoomdar.  A  curious  practice  has  also  been  introduced 
of  holding  supposed  conversations  and  passing  days  and  nights 
as  imaginary  pilgrims  with  the  great  prophets,  apostles,  and 
saints  of  the  world — as,  for  example,  Moses,  Socrates,  Caitanya, 
the  Rishis,  Muhammad,  Buddha— who  are  supposed  to  be 
present  and  to  take  part  in  the  dialogues  and  to  inspire  the 
pilgrims  with  the  fire  of  their  own  nature. 

Furthermore,  a  remarkable  '  Proclamation '  was  issued  in 
the  Sunday  Mirror  of  December  14,  1879,  purporting  to  come 
from  '  India's  Mother.'     It  is  here  abridcred  : — 


"fc.^ 


'To  all  my  soldiers  in  India  my  affectionate  greeting.  Believe  that 
this  Proclamation  goeth  forth  from  Heaven  in  the  name  and  with  the  love 
of  your  Mother.  Carry  out  its  behests  like  loyal  soldiers.  The  British 
Government  is  my  Government.  The  Brahma-Samaj  is  my  Church. 
My  daughter  Queen  Victoria  have  I  ordained.  Come  direct  to  me,  with- 
out a  mediator  as  your  Mother.     The  influence  of  the  earthly  Mother  at 

Ll 


514    Modern    Theism.     Rammohmi  Roys  sticccssors. 

home,  of  the  Queen  Mother  at  the  head  of  the  Government,  will  raise  the 
head  of  my  Indian  children  to  their  Supreme  ^Mother.  I  will  give  them 
peace  and  salvation.     Soldiers,  fight  bravely  and  establish  my  dominion.' 

This  idea  of  Gods  Motherhood  as  a  correlative  to  God's 
Fatherhood  is,  as  I  have  already  pointed  out,  an  essential 
characteristic  of  Hindiaism  (see  chapter  VII,  p.  181). 

Mr.  Sen's  lecture  delivered  on  the  24th  January,  1880, 
called  '  God-vision/  is  too  full  of  rhapsody  mixed  up  with 
many  fine  thoughts ;  but  that  delivered  in  the  Town  Hall, 
Calcutta,  on  the  9th  of  April,  1879,  before  at  least  a  thousand 
persons,  on  the  subject,  'India  asks.  Who  is  Christ?'  was 
pronounced  by  those  who  heard  it  to  be  a  masterpiece  of 
oratory^.  He  not  only  entranced  his  hearers  by  an  extra- 
ordinary effort  of  eloquence ;  he  surprised  them  by  calling 
upon  India  to  accept  Christ.  According  to  Mr,  Sen, 
Christianity  is  the  true  national  religion  of  his  fellow-country- 
men. India  is  destined  to  become  Christian,  and  cannot 
escape  her  destiny.  '  You,  my  countrymen,'  he  says,  '  cannot 
help  accepting  Christ  in  the  spirit  of  your  national  scriptures.' 
In  another  part  of  the  lecture  we  find  him  using  these 
remarkable  words:  — 

*  Gentlemen,  you  cannot  deny  that  your  hearts  have  been  touched, 
conquered,  and  subjugated  by  a  superior  power.  That  power,  need  I 
tell  you  ?  is  Christ.  It  is  Christ  who  rules  British  India,  and  not  the 
British  Government.  England  has  sent  out  a  tremendous  moral  force 
in  the  life  and  character  of  that  mighty  prophet  to  conquer  and  hold 
this  vast  empire.  None  but  Jesus,  none  but  Jesus,  none  but  Jesus, 
ever  deserved  this  bright,  this  precious  diadem,  India,  and  Jesus  shall 
have  it.' 

It  is  evident,  however,  that  Mr.  Sen  intends  Christ  to  be 
accepted  by  his  fellow-countrymen  as  the  greatest  of  all 
Asiatic  saints  and  not  in  the  character  ascribed  to  Him  by 
the  Church  of  England.     '  Christ  comes  to  us,'  he  says,  '  as 

^  The  Rev.  Luke  Rivington  is  my  authority.  He  was  present  with 
the  Bishop  of  Calcutta  and  a  few  other  Europeans.  Indeed  the  lecture 
was  due  to  a  previous  conversation  with  Mr.  Rivington  at  a  dinner-party 
given  by  Mr.  Sen  to  him  and  a  large  number  of  thoughtful  natives. 


Modern   Theism.     Raiunwhiiii  Roy  s  successors.     5 1 5 

an  Asiatic  in  race,  as  a  Hindu  in  faith,  as  a  kinsman  and  as  a 
brother.  .  .  .  Christ  is  a  true  Yogi,  and  will  surely  help  us  to 
realize  our  national  ideal  of  a  Yogi.  ...  In  accepting  Ilini, 
therefore,  you  accept  the  fulfilment  of  your  national  scriptures 
and  prophets.'  This  is  all  very  striking,  but  seems  rather 
like  presenting  Christianity  to  the  Hindus  in  the  light  of  an 
advanced  phase  of  Hinduism. 

Mr.  Sen's  still  more  recent  annual  sermon  delivered  at 
Calcutta  announced  the  advent  of  a  New  Dispensation,  which 
any  one  perusing  the  discourse  will  be  surprised  to  find,  is  a 
kind  of  amalgamation  of  Hinduism,  IMuhammadanism,  and 
Christianity.  The  Reverend  E.  H.  Bickersteth,  of  Christ 
Church,  Hampstead,  was  present  on  the  occasion  and  has 
recorded  his  impression  of  the  address  in  a  letter  written  from 
Bishop's  Palace,  Calcutta  : — 

'  This  afternoon  Keshab  Chandcr  Sen  gave  his  annual  address  to  the 
Brahma-Samaj  in  the  Town  Hall.  The  huge  hall  was  crammed,  I  should 
say  3500  men  and  some  six  ladies;  almost  all  were  Hindus,  thoughtful, 
eamcst-looking  men.  He  spoke  for  one  hour  and  forty  minutes — a  tor- 
rent of  eloquence.  He  denies  the  Godhead  of  Christ,  though,  with  this 
grave  and  grievous  lack,  nothing  in  parts  could  be  more  impassioned 
than  his  language  of  devotion  to  Christ.  He  thinks  himself  the  prophet 
of  a  "  New  Dispensation,"  as  he  calls  it,  which  is  to  affirm  the  Unity 
of  the  Godhead,  and  the  unity  of  all  earnest  creeds — Hindu,  Moslem,  and 
Christian — who  worship  God.  Of  course  it  is  a  great  advance  upon  the 
multiform  idolatiy  of  this  land  ;  and  again  and  again  I  said  to  myself, 
"  Quoniam  talis  es,  utinam  noster  esses."  ' 

As  might  have  been  expected,  the  Protesters,  who  objected 
to  Mr.  Sen's  proceedings  in  regard  to  the  marriage  of  his 
daughter,  met  together,  soon  after  he  left  for  Kuch  Behar, 
to  decide  on  their  line  of  action.  An  unsuccessful  attempt 
was  then  made  to  depose  Mr.  Sen  from  his  office  as  Minister, 
and  an  unseemly  struggle  took  place  for  the  possession  of 
the  Mandir.  In  the  end  it  was  determined  to  establish  a  new 
church  on  a  constitutional  and  catholic  basis.  All  the  pro- 
vincial Samajes  were  consulted,  and  with  the  approval  of  the 
majority,  a  meeting  was  held  in   the  Town   Hall,  Calcutta, 

Li  2 


5i6    Modern   Theism.     Rammo/mn  Roys  siicccssoj^s. 

May  15,  1878,  Mr.  Ananda  Mohan  Bose  being  in  the  chair, 
when  the  following  resolution  was  passed  : — 

'  That  this  meeting  deeply  deplores  the  want  of  a  constitutional  organiz- 
ation in  the  Brahma-Samaj,  and  does  hereby  establish  a  Samaj  to  be  called 
"The  Sadharana  [or  general]  Brahma-Samaj,"  with  a  view  to  remove  the 
serious  and  manifold  evils  resulting  from  this  state  of  things,  and  to 
secure  the  representation  of  the  views  and  the  harmonious  co-operation 
of  the  general  Brahma  community,  in  all  that  affects  the  progress  and 
well-being  of  the  Theistic  cause  and  Theistic  work  in  India.' 

At  first  the  Prayer  Meetings  of  this  the  latest  Brahma- 
Samaj,  of  which  Mr.  Ananda  Bose  was  the  first  President  \ 
were  held  in  temporary  rooms,  but  a  new  Prayer  Hall  was 
commenced  in  January,  1879,  and  the  building  is  now,  I 
believe,  nearly  completed.  At  the  same  time,  the  Brahma 
Public  Opinion 2  newspaper,  and  the  Tattva-kaumudl,  'Moon- 
light of  Truth,'  a  fortnightly  paper,  were  started  as  religious 
and  literary  organs  of  the  protesting  party. 

It  is  scarcely  possible  as  yet  to  predict  what  may  be  the 
future  of  this  fourth  development  of  the  Brahma  Theistic 
movement.  Its  name,  Sddliarana,  implies  that  it  aims  at 
more  comprehensiveness,  and  a  more  democratic  system  of 
Church  government,  but  its  organization,  though  promising 
well  under  the  leadership  of  Mr.  A.  M.  Bose  and  Pandit  Siva- 
nath  Sastri  (a  man  of  undoubted  eloquence  and  ability),  is  not 
as  complete  in  relation  to  the  rest  of  India  as  it  may  yet 
become.  There  appears  in  fact  to  be  no  one  man  at  present 
among  its  members  who  has  the  religious  genius  of  either 
Keshab  Chandar  Sen,  or  of  Debendra-nath  Tagore,  or  the 
literary  culture  which  characterizes  the  best  productions  of 
Mr.  P.  C.  Mozoomdar  and  Raj  Narain  Bose.  But  there  arc 
a  larger  number  of  secondary  leaders — men  of  good  sound 
sense,  religious  earnestness,  and  plain  practical  ability,  who 

'  He  has  been  succeeded  by  Babu  Shib  Chandar  Deb. 

-  This  has  now  become  a  purely  secular  paper  and  has  changed  its 
name  to  'Bengal  Public  Opinion,'  while  the  'Indian  Messenger,'  well 
edited  by  Sivanath  Sastri,  M.  A.,  has  taken  its  place  as  the  religious  organ. 


Modern    Thcisvi.     Ramniohuu  Roys  successors.     5  i  7 

accomplish  a  great  deal  of  useful  work  together,  and  will 
probably  hereafter  make  their  society  the  leading  Samaj  of 
India. 

It  is  to  be  hoped  that  much  of  the  bitterness  of  feeling 
produced  by  the  late  schism  has  already  passed  away,  and  that 
the  various  Samajes  of  India  may  ere  long  forget  their  petty 
differences,  and  agree  upon  some  course  of  combined  and 
systematic  action.  Surely  the  little  army  of  Reformers,  how- 
ever courageous,  is  not  strong  enough  to  bear  weakening  by 
internal  divisions.  A  compact  and  serried  front  is  urgently 
needed  in  the  presence  of  malignant  foes,  who  neglect  no 
opportunity  of  marshalling  their  forces,  and  uniting  in  active 
co-operation  for  the  destruction  of  the  scattered  ranks  of  their 
opponents. 

Some  attempt  at  concerted  action  between  the  numerous 
bodies  of  Theists,  which  the  operation  of  our  educational 
system  is  rapidly  calling  into  existence,  is  certainly  needed  ; 
for  there  are  now  more  than  a  hundred  and  seventy  Theistic 
Churches  scattered  throughout  the  country.  That  at  Madras, 
founded  in  1871,  and  developed  out  of  a  previous  Society, 
called  the  Veda-Samaj,  was  well  led  for  some  time  by  its 
Secretary,  Srldharalu  Naidu  (long  under  the  tuition  of  the 
Adi  Brahma-Samaj),  but  at  his  death  languished.  It  revived 
in  1879,  but  seems  .to  be  still  in  want  of  a  good  leader.  At 
Bombay,  the  Prarthana-Samaj,  or  Prayer  Society,  was  the 
first  Theistic  Church  of  Western  India.  It  was  founded  in 
1867,  and  owes  much  of  its  continued  vitality  to  the  support 
of  an  enlightened  native  Doctor  of  Medicine,  Dr.  Atmaram 
Pandurang. 

Many  of  the  Samajes  take  an  independent  line  of  their 
own.  Some  are  conservative,  and  conform  to  the  pattern 
of  the  Adi  Brahma-Samaj  at  Calcutta  ^     Some,  again,  have 

'  According  to  Raj  Narain  Rose,  the  Adi  Brahma-Samaj,  though 
generally  conservative,  contains  individttal  members  who  have  taken 
part   in  very  progressive   reforms,  such   as   discarding  the  thread,  the 


5 1 8    Modern   Theism.     RammoJmn  Roys  successors. 

distinct  characteristics  peculiar  to  themselves,  which  can  only 
be  understood  by  personal  investigations  in  each  locality. 

I  myself  attended  meetings  of  the  Adi  Brahma-Samaj  at 
Calcutta,  and  of  the  corresponding  Samaj,  called  the  Prar- 
thana-Samaj  at  Bombay.  The  services  at  the  former  were 
conducted  by  a  son  of  Debendra-nath.  The  sermon  was 
preached  from  a  raised  platform  or  altar  (Vedi) ;  and  three 
singers,  seated  in  front  of  a  kind  of  organ,  chanted  the  hymns 
in  loud  tones,  and  with  much  warmth  of  manner  and  energetic 
gesticulation. 

At  Bombay  the  Manual  used  by  the  Prarthana-Samaj  con- 
tained selections  from  the  Veda,  Upanishads,  Christian  Bible, 
Kuran,  and  Zand-Avasta.  Hymns  were  sung  with  much 
fervoyr  in  a  thoroughly  Hindu  fashion  to  an  accompaniment 
played  on  the  Vina  or  Indian  lute,  and  prayers  were  said, 
consisting  chiefly  of  invocations  of  the  Supreme  Being,  with 
praise  and  adoration  of  His  attributes,  but  without  confession 
of  guilt,  while  the  congregation  remained  seated,  though  their 
hands  were  joined  in  reverence.  After  the  prayer  a  sermon 
was  preached  by  Professor  Bhandarkar  of  the  Elphinstone 
College,  who  took  for  his  text  a  passage  from  the  Katho- 
panishad  (VI.  15),  thus  translatable: — 'Man  cannot  obtain 
immortality  till  all  the  knots  in  his  heart  caused  by  ignorance 
and  unbelief  are  untied  (yada  sarve  prabhidyante  hridayasya 
granthayah).'  He  then  illustrated  his  text  by  quotations 
from  other  books.  For  example — a  passage  from  Tukaram 
— the  most  popular  Maratha  poet : — '  There  is  no  happiness 
other  than  peace.  Therefore  preserve  peace,  and  you  will 
cross  over  to  yonder  shore.' 

What  chiefly  struck  me  was  the  apparent  absence  of  sym- 
pathy or  rapport  between  the  official  performers  of  the 
services   and   the   general   congregation.     The   hymns   were 

remarriage  of  widows,  emancipation  of  females,  etc.  The  Adi  Samaj  in 
fact  is  conservative  in  religious  reform,  basing  it  on  Vedas  and  Vcdanta, 
but  leaves  social  reform  to  the  judgment  and  taste  of  individual  members. 


Modern   Theism.     Rannnohun  Roys  successors.     5  r  9 

energetically  sung  by  the  appointed  singers,  the  prayers 
earnestly  repeated,  and  the  address  solemnly  delivered  by 
the  minister,  but  the  congregation  neither  stood  nor  knelt, 
and  seemed  to  take  no  really  cordial  part  in  the  proceedings. 
It  is  true  that  a  sitting  posture  at  prayer  is  customary,  and 
by  no  means  intended  to  imply  irreverence ;  yet  I  came 
away  persuaded  that  the  Prarthanfi-Samaj  of  Bombay,  in 
spite  of  honest  strivings  after  a  pure  soul-stirring  Theism,  is 
still  chilled  and  numbed  by  the  lingering  influence  of  the  old 
Vedantic  Pantheism,  which  it  is  unable  wholly  to  shake  off. 

Before  concluding  these  remarks  I  should  note  that  occasional 
Reformers  still  arise  who  make  efforts  to  go  back  to  the 
Veda,  and  to  found  a  pure  Theism  on  the  doctrines  con- 
tained in  the  hymns.  A  conservative  Theistic  movement  of 
this  kind  has  recently  been  inaugurated  by  a  remarkable 
Gujarat!  Brahman  named  Dayananda  Sarasvatl  SvamI — now 
about  60  years  of  age — who  calls  his  new  church  the  Arya- 
Samaj.  He  is  a  strong  opponent  of  idolatry  as  well  as  of 
both  Pantheism  and  Polytheism,  but  contends  that  the  four 
Vedas  are  a  true  revelation,  and  that  the  hymns  to  Agni, 
Indra,  and  Surya  arc  really  hymns  to  One  God.  In  the 
printed  statement  of  his  creed  he  declares  that  he  is  not  an 
independent  thinker  (naharn  svatantrah),  but  a  follower  of 
the  Veda ;  that  the  four  Samhita  texts  of  the  Vedas  are 
to  be  received  as  a  primary  authority  in  all  matters  relating 
to  human  conduct ;  that  the  Brahmanas,  beginning  with  the 
Satapatha ;  the  six  Ahgas  or  limbs  of  the  Veda,  beginning 
with  Siksha ;  the  four  Upa-vedas ;  the  six  Darsanas  or 
Schools  of  Philosophy,  and  the  1J30  schools  of  Vedic  teach- 
ing (sakhas^)  are  to  be  accepted  as  secondary  authority  in 
expounding  the  meaning  of  the  Vedas,  and  that  adoration, 
prayer,  and  devotion  are  to  be  offered  to    One   God  only, 

'  That  is  '  branches.'  Of  these  there  are  one  thousand  for  the  Sama- 
veda,  one  hundred  for  the  Yajur-veda,  twenty-one  for  the  Rig-veda,  and 
nine  for  the  Athar\'a-veda.     See  Patanjali's  Mahabhashya  I.  i.  i. 


520    Modern   TJieisni.     RanimoJmu  Roys  successors. 

abstracted  from  all  idea  of  shape  and  form,  and  without  any- 
second,  as  set  forth  in  the  Vedas. 

Of  course  such  a  form  of  monotheistic  teaching — including 
as  it  does  the  doctrine  of  metempsychosis  (punar-janma) — is 
repudiated  by  the  various  Brahma  Samajes,  and  even  by  the 
Adi  Samaj  of  Calcutta.  Nor  would  Dayananda  himself 
admit  an  identity  of  teaching  with  the  Brahma  Theistic 
movement.  Nevertheless  he  is  doing  undoubted  good  by 
his  uncompromising  opposition  to  the  later  developments  of 
Hinduism,  including  the  whole  circle  of  Puranic  mythology. 

And  let  us  not  be  slow  to  acknowledge  the  good  results 
likely  to  flow  from  all  this  agitation  in  Indian  religious 
thought — all  this  upheaval  of  old  ideas,  all  this  change  in 
religious  life — due  to  the  various  Theistic  movements.  Still 
less  let  us  regard  with  suspicion  the  efforts  of  these  modern 
Theistic  Reformers,  as  if  they  were  unfavourable  to  the 
progress  of  Christian  truth.  We  may  be  quite  sure  that  men 
like  Debendra-nath  Tagore,  Keshab  Chandar  Sen,  and  the 
other  leaders  of  the  chief  Theistic  churches,  are  doing  good 
work  in  a  Christian  self-sacrificing  spirit,  though  they  may 
fall  into  many  errors,  and  may  not  have  adopted  every  single 
dogma  of  the  Nicene  or  Athanasian  Creeds. 

Let  us  hold  out  the  right  hand  of  fellowship  to  these  noble- 
minded  Patriots — men  who,  notwithstanding  their  undoubted 
courage,  need  every  encouragement  in  their  almost  hopeless 
struggle  with  their  country's  worst  enemies,  Ignorance,  Pre- 
judicc;  and  Superstition.  Intense  darkness  still  broods  over 
the  land — in  some  places  a  veritable  Egyptian  darkness  thick 
enough  to  be  felt.  Let  Christianity  thankfully  welcome  and 
wisely  make  use  of  every  gleam  and  glimmer  of  true  light, 
from  whatever  quarter  it  may  shine. 


50,  Aluksiablr  Strirt,  London. 
July,  1333. 


MR.  MURP.AY'S 

GENERAL     LIST    OF    WORKS. 


ALBERT   MEMORIAL.     A  Descriptive  and  Illustratod  Account 

of  the  Nitioiml  Monument  urecieil  to  tim  I'KlNCE  C  >N'S()KT  at 
Kenainston.  Illustrrtted  by  EiiKrAvintjs  of  it^  Arcliiie;tura,  Ueconi- 
tlODS,  Sculptured  Groups,  tStAtUMti,  Mosmcs,  .M"t*lwi)ik,  iic.  Witti 
Descriptive  Text.  Uy  1>()yxk  C.  llhui..  Witu  2J  Plates,  b'ulio.  122.  ISx. 
— —  Handbook  to.  To-st  8vo.  Is. ;  or  Illus- 
trated KJition,  2.«.  6</. 

^(PiUNCb)   ril'EECUKS  AND  ApDRKSSES.       Fcap.  8vO.       Is. 

ABBOTT  (Ukv.  J.),     Memoirs  of  a  Cluircli  of  Eoglaud  Missionary 

in  the  North  American  ColonirtH.     Hust  8vo.     '2f. 

ABERCKOMBlE  (John).     EiKiuirics  concerning  the  Intellectual 

Piiwers  and  the  Iiivesti^atiou  <i(  Truth.     Fcap.  8vo.     3<.  Oi. 

ACLAND  (Rev.  Charles).     Popular  Account  of  the  Manners  and 

Cu^tims  of  India.     Po->t  8vo.     ■_'■(. 

ADMIRALTY"  PUBLICATIONS;  Issued  by  direction  of  the  Lord* 
Commissioners  of  the  Admiralty: — 
ClIALLli.NGKIi    KXPEDITION,  1873—1876:  Repirt  of  the  Scientific 

Results  of.    Zoology.     V»l.  I.  37».  6(i.    Vol.  11.  oOs.    Vol.  III.  6Us. 

Vol.  IV.  50,^.     Vol.  V.  50^■. 
A  MANUAL  UF  SCIENTIFIC  ENQUIRY,  for  the  Use  of  Traveller?. 

Fourth  Edition.     Edited  by  Kubbst  Maim,  M.A.    Woodcatd.    Post 

8vo.    3».  6d. 
GREENWICH    ASTRONOMICAL  OBSERVATIONS,  1841  to  1847, 

aHd  1817  to  ISS'i.     KnvaMto.     20s.  each. 
GREENWICH  ASTKONOMICAL  RESULTS,  1S47  to  18S0.    4to.    3». 

each. 
MAQNETICAL  AND  METEOROLOGICAL  OBSERVATIONS,  1S44 

to  1847.     Royal  4to.    20s.  each. 
MAGNEIICAL  AND  METEOROLOGICAL  RESULTS,  1^3  to  1380. 

4to.     Ss.  each. 
APPENDICES  TO  OBSERVATIONS. 

1337.  Logarithms  of  Sines  and  Cosines  In  Time.   3«. 

1842.  Catalogue  of  1439  Stars,  from  (jb»<-rv.tiioU9  made  io  1836, 
l»a.   As. 

1845.  Longitude  of  Valenfia  (Chronometrical),     3«. 

1817.  Description  of  Altazimuth.     3». 

Description  of  Photograpliic  Apparatus.    2s. 

1851.  Ma-skelyne's  Ledger  of  Stars,     .li. 

1852.  I.  Description  of  the  Transit  Circle.     3*. 

1853.  Besiel's  itefraction  Tables.     3s. 

1854.  I.  Description  of  the  Reflex  Zenith  Tube.    8*. 

II.  Six  Yeir.s'  Catalogue  of  Stars  from  Observations.      1313 
to  1853.     4s. 

1860.  Reduction  of  Deep  Thermometer  Observations.    2«. 

13ti2.  II.    Plan  of  Ground  and   Buildings  of  Royal  Observatory, 
Greenwich     3s. 
III.  Longitude  of  Valentia  (Galvanic).     2». 

1861.  1.  Moon's  Semi-diameter,  from  occultatlons.    2s. 

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1876.  II.   Nine  Year.V  Cataloguenf -2283  .-stars.    (lSi8-76.)    Os. 
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B 


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WI'^DD^l.     Canon  Fakhai!.  llnthtPfctt. 

ARISTOTLE.     [See  Grote,  Hatch.] 

•VKMY  LIST  (The).     Published  Monlhhj  hij  Authority. 

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!_L  Student's  Edition,  compiled   from   the   al  ove  work, 

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BARROW    (John).     Life,  Exploits,  and  Voyages  of  Sir   Francis 

Drake.    Post  8vo.    In.  .  .       •  ..  * 

BARRY  (Canon).     The  Manifold  Witness  for  Christ.     An  Attempt 

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of  Christianity.    8vo.    Vis.  ,,    r 

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the  Koy.al  Acadomy.  Idlited,  with  .Memoir  by  Canon  lUrry.  Por- 
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BATES  (H.  W.).     Records  of  a  Naturalist  on  the  Amazons  durinc: 

Eleven  Years'  Adventure  and  Travel.    Illu8trAtion>».     Post  Svo.    If.  *iJ. 

BAX  (Gkvt.).  Russian  Tartary,  Eastern  Siberia,  China,  Japan, 
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BECKETT  (Sir  Edmund).  "Should  the  Revised  ^ew  Testa- 
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. (Dotne    C).     Notices   of  the  Historic  Persons  buried  in 

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BIBLE    CO]\rMENTAEY.     The  Old  Testamknt.     Explanatory 
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/■Gf.nk.bis. 


Vol.  I. 
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Vols.  IT. 

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Vol. 

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Joshua,  JnnoES,  Rnrn. 
Samuel,  Kings,  Chbo- 

KICLES,    EZBA,  NEHEMIAH, 
(  ESTHEE. 


-TNTrODUCTION. 
ITTHEW. 


Vol.  IV. 
24». 

Vol.  V. 
20». 


Job. 
Psalms. 
Proverbs, 
ecclesiastes. 
I  Song  of  Solomon. 

AH. 
REMIAH. 
EZEKIEL. 
AVIEL. 

JNOR  Prophets. 

The  Kew  Testament.   4  Vols.  Medium  8vo.    41.  14.?. 

/Romans.     Corinthians, 

Galatians,  Pbilippians, 

EpnEsiANS.    Colo?sians, 

Thessalonians.    Pastd- 

^RAL  Epistles,  Philemok. 

(  Hebrews,    SS.    James, 

-,  Peter,      .Tohn,     Jude, 

(and  the  Revelation. 

The  Student's  Edition  of  the  Old  Testament. 

Abridged  and  Edited  by  John  M.  Fuller,  M.A.,  Vicar  of  Bexley.    4 
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BIGG-WITHER  (T.  P.).  Pioneering  in  South  Brazil;  Three  Years 
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BIRD  (Isabella).  Hawaiian  Archipelago;  or  Six  Months  among 
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Unbeaten  Tracks  in  Japan :   Travels  of  a  Lady  in  the 


{iNTrODUCT 
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St.  Luke. 

1.  II.    (  St.  John 

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^'"l-.^'^-  Ida 

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Vol.  III. 

28s. 


Vol.  IV. 

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Lady's 


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BISSET  (Sir  John).  Sport  and  War  in  South  Africa  from  1834  to 
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BLUNT  (Lady  Anne).  The  Bedouins  of  the  Euphrates  Valley. 
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•  A  Pilgrimage  to  Nejd,  the  Cradle  of  the  Arab  Race,  and 

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Svo.    24s. 

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History  of  the  Christian  Church  in  the  First  Three 

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PUBLISHED  BY   MR.  MURIIAY. 


BOKKOW  (George).  The  Bible  In  Spain;  or  the  Jeurneya,  Adven- 
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the  Scriptures  in  the  I'eninsiila.     Post  8vo.    &».  „     .     • 

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English  Gypsy  I>iii>t,nmHe.     Post  Hvo.     10*.  H<i.  ,      ,     ,-  ,, 

BOSW ELL'S    Life   of    Samuel    Johnson,    LL.D.  IncliuUng  ine 

Tour    t.->   the   Ilebrl.les.       Edited   l>y   Mr.    (Jkokkb.  Sevr.nth  Kditwn. 
Portraits.     1vol.     Medium  8vo.     U". 

BRADLEY    (Dean).      Arthur    Penrhyn   Stanley;    Biographical 

l.eelureN.     Cr.wnSvo.    3)t.  6'^  -l-      i-   \ 

BREWEK   (I'vEV.  J.  S.).     Entjhsh  Studits,  or  Essays  on  Lngli>h 

History  snd  I.iiei-Hturi'.    8vo.     U>.  ^.„.i       ^\  ^t\, 

History  of  the  Rciga  of  Henry  YIIL  till  ihe  Death 

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.T*MKS  (iAlRbSt'R.       2  vols.       .SVC.  mi    -1       .       -V'       1  1 

BRIDGES   (Mrs.   F.   D.).     Travels   to  Japan,  Tlnhet    ^rkand, 

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BRUGSCH '''(Professor).  A  History  of  Egypt,  under  the 
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Exodus  of  the  Israelites.     Maps.     2  vols.      8vo.    32...  ,, 

RUNBURY  (E.  H.).     A  History  of  Ancient  Oeogmphj, among  tbe 

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Fmnire      Map?*-     '-^  Volt*.    8V'>,  .,  ..   .i 

BURBl  UGE  (F.  W.).  The  Gardens  of  the  Sun :  or  A  ^a'">-al»«;; 
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BURCKHARDT'S  Cicerone ;  or  Art  Guide  to  Painting  in  Italy. 
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by  J.  A.  Crowe.    PostSvo.    6s. 

BURGON  (J.  W.),  Dean  of  Chichester.     The  Revision  Revised  : 

(1.)  The  New  Greek  Text;  Ci.)  The  New  Kii-lish  Version;  (:'..)  VVest- 
cott  and  Hort's  Textual  Tlieory.  With  a  lleply  to  the  Bishop  of 
Gloucester's  Pamphlet.     Svo. 

BURN  (Col.).  Dictionary  of  Naval  and  Military  Technical 
Terms,  English  and  French — French  and  English.    Crown  Svo.    15a. 

BUTTMANN'S  Lexilogus ;  a  Critical  Examination  of  the 
Meaning  of  numerous  Greek  Words,  chiefly  in  Homer  and  Hesiod. 
By  Rev.  J.  R.  Fishlake.    Svo.    12s. 

BUXTON   (Charles).     Memoirs   of  Sir  Thomas  Fowell  Buxton, 

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(Sydney  C).     A   Handbook  to  the  Political  Questions 

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BYLES    (Sir  John).    Foundations  of  Religion  in  the  Mind  and 

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BYRON'S  (Lord)  LIFE  AND  WORKS  :— 

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CAMPBELL    (Lord).     Life  :  Based  on  his  Autobiography,  with 
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■ Lord    Chancellors   and    Keepers     of   the    Great 

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CARNARVON     (Lord).      Portugal,     Gallicia,    and    the    Basque 

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CHURTON  (ARcnDEACON),     Poetical  Remains.    Post  8vo.   7s.6d. 

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CLIYE'S  (Lord)  Life.     By  Rev.  G.  R.  Gleio.     Post  8vo.     38.  6d. 

CLODE  (C.  M.).  Military  Forces  of  the  Crown  ;  their  Administra- 
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Administration  of  Justice  under  Military  and  Martial 

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CRABBE  (Rev.  Georoe).     Life  k  Poetical  Works.    Illustrationa. 

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Translated  by  A.   S.    Wilkins,    M.A.,   and   E.    B.    England,    M.A. 
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CURZON  (Hon.  Robert).  Visits  lo  the  Monasteries  of  the  Levant. 

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DENNIS  (George).  The  Cities  and  Cemeteries  of  Etruria.  A 
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Plans  and  200  Illustrations.     2  vols.    Medium  8vo.     42s. 

DENT  (Emma).     Annals  of  Winchcombe  and  Sudeley.     With  120 

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DERBY    (Earl   of).      Iliad    of   Homer    rendered    into    English 

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PUBLISIIKD    nV    MU.    MUKRAY, 


DARWIN'S  (CnARLFs)  WORKS:— 

Journal  op    a    Naturalist    luuikq    a    Voyags    hounu  thk 

W(.Rf,i).     Cr.iwn  8v".     9.«. 

Okigin  of  Speciks  liY  Means  ok  Natural  Selkction  ;  or,  the 

l'ivK«rv«ii..n  of  Favoured  lUces  in  llie  SirugBle  for  Lite.      WoodiuU. 
Cniwn  Svo.     If.  Gtl. 

Variation   of   Animals  and   Plants   under  Domestication. 

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Descent    of    jA[an,    and   Selection    in    Relation    to    Skx. 

Woodcuts.     Crown  8 vo.     Qs. 
EXPKESSIOKS   OF    THE    EMOTIONS    IN    MaN    AND    AmMALS.       Willi 

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Yakious    Contrivances    iiy  which  Orchu'S  are    tEiiTiLizED 

liY   iNShXls.     \Vo.  ilciits      Crown  Svo.     O.'. 
MOVE.MENTS     AND      HaUITS     OF     CLIMBING    PlANTS.       ^^  OOdCUlS. 
Crown  Svo.     Us. 

Insectivorous  Pi  ANTS.     \Yo<-«lcus.     Crown  Svo.     14«. 
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Kingdom.     Crown  Svo.     TJ*. 

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Si'KCiES.    Crown  6vo.     10«.  tiii. 

Power  OF  Movement  IN  Plants.     Woodcuts.    Cr.  Svo.     lo.<. 
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WoiiMs;  with  Observatinis  on  iheir  Habits.   With  IllustraliouB.    Post 

LiFK  OF  Erasmus  Darwin.     With  a  Sto.ly  of  his  Works  Ly 

KusESi-  Kkai'se.     Hortruii.     Crown  8vo.    Is.Hd. 

Facts  and  Arguments  for  Dakwin.  By  Fritz  Muller. 
Translated  by  W.  S.  Dallas.     WooUcuts.     Post  bvo.    6s. 

DEKRY  (Bishop  of).  Witness  of  the  Psalms  to  Christ  and  Chris- 
tianity.   The  Hamilton  Lectiirea  for  1676.    Svo.    Us. 

DEUTSCH  (Emanuel).  Talmud,  I.^lam,  The  Targums  and  other 
Literary  Keniains.    Wilh  a  brief  Memoir.     Svo.     Vis. 

DILKE    (Sir  C.  W.).     Papers   from   the   Wriliug.^    of  CiiARLts 

Wentwouth  Uii-KB.    V!  Vols.     Svo.     24s. 

DOG-BKEAKINO.     [See  Hutchinson.] 

DOUGLAS'S   (Sir   Howard)   Theory  and   Practice  of  Gunnery. 

DRAKE'S  '(Sir  i^J^^N^is)  Eife,  Voyages,  and  Exploits,  by  Sea  and 

Land.    By  Jons  Babbow.    PostSvo.    is. 
DRINKWATER    (John).      History   of   the   Siege   of   Gibraltar, 

1779-1783.    With  a  Description  of  that  Garrison.    Post  8vo.    2». 
DU  CHAILLU  (Paul  B.).    LaLd  of  the  Miduight  Sun,  Journeys 

through  Sweden,  Norway,  L«pl«nd,  and  Northern  Finland  «|;l>  I  5" 
scdptTons  of  the  Inner  Lile  of  tl^e  People.  lUustraiious.  i  %  o... 
bvo.    36«. 

____—  Journey  to  Ashango  Land ;  and  Further  Pene- 
tration into  Eqiiaturial  Africa.    Illuatratioas.    Svo.    21». 

DDFFERIN  (Lord).  Letter*  from  High  Latitudes;  a  Yacht 
Voyage  to  Iceland.  Jan  Mayen,  and  Spiubergen.  Woodcut*.  Pout 
Svo.    7«.6J.  ,  ,     T., 

Speeches  and  Addresses,    Political    and    Literary, 

delivered  in  the  Uouse  of  Lords,  in  Canada,  and  elbcwbere.    bvo. 


10  LIST  OF  WORKS 


DUNCAN  (Major).  History  of  the  Eojal  Artillery.  Com- 
piled from  the  Original  Records.    Portraits.    2  Vols.    8vo.    ISs. 

— English  in  Spain;  or,  The  Story  of  the  War  of  Suc- 
cession. 1834-1840.  Compiled  from  the  Ileports  of  the  British  Com- 
missioners.    AVith  Illustrations.     8vo.     16s. 

DiJKER   (Albert);   his    Life    and   Work.      By   Dr.   Thausing. 

TranslRted  from  the  German.      Kdited  by  V.  A.  Eaton,  JI.A.     With 
Portrait  and  Illustrations.     2  vols.     Medium  8vo.    42.<. 
EASTLAKE  (Sir  Charles).     Contributions  to  the  Literature   of 
the  Fine  Arts.     With   Memoir  of  the  Author,  and  Selections  from  his 
Correspondence.     Py  Lady  Eastt.ake.    2  Vols.     8vo.    24s. 

EDWARDS  ^W.  H.).     Voyage  up  the  River  Amazon,  including  a 

Visit  to  Para.     Post  8vo.    25. 
ELDON'S  (Lord)  Public   and  Private  Life,  with  Selections  from 

his  Diaries,  &c.   Bv  Horack  Twiss.    Portrait.    2  Vols.    Post  8vo.  21». 
ELGIN    (Lord).    Letters    and    Journals.      E(iifed   by  Tdeodork 

Walkosd.     With  Preface  by  Dean  Stanley.    8vo.  Hs. 

ELLESMERE    (Lord).      Two    Sieges    of  Vienna   by  the   Turks. 

Translated  from  the  German.     Post  8vo.     2n. 
ELLIS     (W.).       Madagascar    Revisited.      The    Persecutions  and 
Heroic  Sufferings  ot  the  Native  Christians.     Illustrations.     8vo.     16s. 

Memoir.       By    His    Son.       With   his   Character  and 

■Work.    By  Eev.  Henry  Allon,  D.D.     Portrait.    Svo.    10s.  6d. 
(Robinson)  Poems  and  Fragments  of  Catullus.    16mo.  5s. 


ELPHINSTONE  (Hon.  Mountstuart).  History  of  India— the 
Hindoo  and  Mahomedan  Periods.  Edited  by  Professor  Cowell. 
Map.    Svo.    1R«. 

(H.  W.).     Patterns    for   Turning;     Comprising 

Elliptical  and  other  Figures  rut  on  the  Lathe  without  the  use  of  any 
Ornamental  Chuck.     With  70  lUnstraiions.     Small  4to.     16.5. 

ELTON    (Capt.)   and     H.    B.    CUTTEEILL.     Adventures    and 

Discoveries  Among  the  Lakes  and  Mountains  of  Eastern  and  Central 
Africa.     With  Map  and  Illustrations.    8vo.     21s. 

ENGLAND.      [See  Arthur,  Croker,  Hcmk,  Markham,  Smith, 

and  Stanhope.] 
ESSAYS   ON   CATHEDRALS.     Edited,   with    an  Introduction. 

By  Dean  Howson.     Svo.     12s. 
FERGUSSON    (James).     History  of  Architecture  in  all  Countries 
from  the  Earliest  Times.  AVith  l,fiOO  Illustrations.  4  Vols.  Medium  Svo. 

I.  k  II.  Ancient  anu  Mediaeval.     6'is. 

III.  Indian  &  Eastern.  42s.     IV.  Modern.   3l5.  6d. 

Rude  Stone  Monuments  in  all    Countries;    their 

Age  and  Uses.     Witli  230  Illustrations.     Medium  8vo.  24s. 

Holy   Sepulchre   and  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem. 

Woodcuts.    Svo.     7s.  6d. 
Temples  of  the    Jews   and    other   buildings   in 

the  H;iram  Area  at  Jerusalem.     AVith  lllustr.itions.    4to.     42s. 
The  Partlieiion.     An  Essay  on  the  mode  in  which 

Light  was  Introduced  into  Greek  and  Koman  Temples.     4to.     21s. 
FLEMING  (Professor).     Student's  Manual  of  Moral  Philosophy. 
Witli  Q'lotations  and  References.     Post  Svo.    7s.  6il. 

FLOWER  GARDEN.    By  Rev.  Thos.  James.    Fcap.  Svo.    Is. 
FORBES    (Capt.)      British     Burma    and     its    People;    Native 

Manners,  Customs,  and  Keli^ion.     Crown  Svo.    ICs.  Gil. 

FORD  (Riohard).    Gatherings  from  Spain.     Post  Svo.     ,3s.  6d. 
FORSTER  (John).   The  Early  Life  of  Jonathan  Swift.     1667-1711. 
With  Portrait.     Svo.    15s. 


PUBLISHED  BY  MR.  MURRAY.  H 


FOESYTH  (William),  llorleiisius;  an  Historical  Essav  on  the 
Office  and  Duties  of  an  All  vnmto.     Illustrations.    8vo.    7v.  C./. 

Novels    ami    Novelists    of    the   18th  Century,  in 

Illustration  of  tlio  Manners  iinil  Morals  of  ilic  Ak".    I'ost  8vo.    10*.  (W. 

FRANCE  (History  of).      [See  Makkham — Smith — Studknts' — 

ToCyilKVII.LK.] 

FRENCH  IN  ALGIERS;  The  Soldier  of  the  Foreign  Lej-ion— 
and  the  Prisoners  of  Abd-el-Kadir.  Translated  by  Lady  Dvvv  tiounoM. 
Post  8vo.    -24. 

FRERE  (Sir  Baktle).     Indian  Missiona.     Small  8vo.     2s.  6d. 

Eastern  Africa  as  a  Field  for  Missionary  Labour.     With 

Map.     Crovrn  Svo.    bs. 

Bengal     Famine.     How   it  will   be  Met   and  How 'to 

Prevent  Tutiire  Famines  in  India.     With  Maps.     Cpmn  .'-.vo.      5.5. 

(JIahv).     Old  Decean    Days,  or   Hindoo   Fairy    Legends 

currciit  ir\  Southern  Icidin,  with  Infroduciion  hy  Sir  H.MiTLK  ruKEiK. 
■\Viih  50  Illustrations.     Pose  8vo.     7f.  (>•!. 

GALTON    (F.).    Art  of  Travel ;  or,  Hints  on  the  Shifts  and  Con- 
trivances available  in  Wild  Conntries.     Woodcnts.    Post  8vo.  7.».  6ii. 
GEOGRAPHY.     [See  Bunbuuy  —  Croker — Richardson  —  Smitu 

GKOGRAPHIcIii  SOCIETY'S  JOURNAL.    (1846  to  1831.) 
Supplementary  Papers  (i),  Travels  and  Researches  in 

Western  Cliina.     By  V..  Colhobxk  U.mieu.     Maps.     Kciyal  8vo.     5.^'. 
GEORGE  (Ernest).  The  Mosel ;  a  Series  of  Twenty  Etchings,  with 

Descriptive  Letterpress.     Imperial  ■Ito.    4'2.«. 
Loire   and     South   of  France ;    a    Series  of   Twenty 

Etchings,  with  Descriptive  Text.     Folio.     42«. 

GERMANY  (History  of).    [See  Markuam.] 

GIBBON    (Edward).     History   of  the   Decline   and   Fall   of  the 

Koman  Empire.      Edited  by  Milman,   Guizot,  and  Dr.   Wm.  Smith. 

Maps.    8  Vols.   8vo.    60i. 

The   Student's   Edition ;    an  Epitome    of  the   above 

work,  incorporating  the  Kesearches  of  Kecent  Commentators.  By  Dr. 
W'u.  Smith.     Woodcuts.     Post  8vo.     7s.  6d. 

GIFFARD  (Edward).     Deeds  of  Naval  Daring ;    or.  Anecdotes  of 

the  British  Navy.     Fcap.  8vo.    3s.  6d. 

GILL   (Mrs.).     Si.x  Jlonths  in  Ascension.     An  Unscientific   Ac- 

connt  of  a  Scieniilic  Expedition.     Map.     Crown  8vo.     9*. 

(Cai'T.  W.).    The  River  of  Golden  Sand.     A  Narrative  of  a 

Jonrney  thrnugh  (.'hina  to  Bnrmah.  New  and  Popular  Edition.  Illus- 
tratinns.     Crown  .svo. 

GLADSTONE    (\V.   E.).     Rome   and    the    Newest  Fashions    in 

Keliuion.    Three  Tracts.     Svo.    7s.  6J. 

Gleanings  of  Past  Years,  1843-78.     7  vols.     Small 

8vo.  2«.  6./.  each.  I.  The  Tlirone,  the  Prince  Consort,  the  Cabinet  and 
Constitution.  II.  Pcrs"nal  and  Literary.  III.  Historical  and  Specu- 
lative.    IV.  Foreign.     V.  and  VI.  Ecclesiastical.     VII.  Miscellaneous. 

GLEIG  (G.  R.).  Campaigns  of  the  British  Army  at  Washington 
aad  New  Orleans.    Post  Svo.    2/. 

Story  of  the  Battle  of  Waterloo.     Post  Svo.     3.<.  6:1. 

Narrative  of  Sale's  Brigade  in  AfTghanistan.    Post  Svo.  2.s. 

Life  of  Lord  Clive.     Post  Svo.     3^.  6d. 

Sir  Thoma.s  Munro.     Post  Svo.    Zs.  6d. 

GLYNNE    (Sir  Stephen  R.).     Notes   on  the  Churches  of  Kent, 

With  Preface  by  W.  H.  Gladstone,  M.P.    Illustrations.    Svo.    12.i. 


GOLDSMITH'S  (Oliver)  Works.      Edited  with  Notes  by  Peter 

Cdnninoham.     Vignettes.    4  Vols.    8vo.     30s. 
QOMM  (Sir  Wm.  M.),   Commander-in-Chief  in  India,  Constahle 

of  the  Tower,  niul  Calonel  of  tlie  CoMBtreani  Guards.  His  Lettwr--  imd 
JournalK.  1799  to  1815.  Edited  by  F.C.  Carr  Uomiii.  With  Portrait. 
8vo.     12.t. 

GORDON   (Sir  Alex.).     Sketches  of  German  Life,  and   Scenes 

from  the  War  of  Liberation.     Post  8vo.    3s.  6d. 
(Lady     Ddff)    Amber-Witch  :    A    Trial    for   Witch- 
craft.    Post  Svo.    2s. 

French    in   Algiers.      1.  The  Soldier  of  the  Foreign 

Legion.    2.  The  PriHoners  o(  Abd-el-Kadir.     Post  Svo.    2*. 

GRAMMARS,     [See  Curtius  ;   Hall;    IIuttun;  Kino  Edward; 

Leatiies;  Maetzner;  Mattiii.k;  Surrn.] 
GREECE  (HibTort  of).     [See  Grote — Smith — Students'.] 
GROTE'S  (George)  WORKS  :— 

History  of  Greece.     From  the  Earliest  Times  to  the  cWe 

of  the  generation  contemporary  with  the  Death  of  Alexander  the  Giea'. 

Library   Edition.     Portrait,    Maps,   and    Plans.     10   Vols.    Svo.     120;. 

Cdbiiift  Editiiin.     Portiait  and  I'laiis.   12  Vols.     Post  Svo.  6,<.  each. 

Plato,  and  other  Companions  of  Socrates.     3  Vols.   Svo.   45s. 
Aristotle.     With  additional  Essays.     Svo.    18a-. 
Minor  Works.      Portrait.   8vo.    14s. 
Letters  on  Switzerland  in  1847.     6s. 
Personal  Life.     Portrait.     Svo.     12s. 
GROTE  (Mrs.).     A  Sketch.     By  Ladv  Eastlake.    Crown  Svo.   6s. 

HALL'S  ('!'.  D.)  School  Manual  of  English  Grammar.  With 
Copious  Exercises.     I'iiiio.     Ss.  6./. 

Primary    English    Grammar    for    Elementary    Schoo's. 

With  l;j4  Exercises.    Based  on  the  above  woik.     Ifimo.    \s. 

Manual  of  English  Composition.  With  Copious  Illustra- 
tions and  Practical  Exercises.     12aio.     3.1.  fd. 

Child's  First  Latin  Book,  conipirising  a  full  Practice  of 

Nounp,  Pronouns,  and  Adjectives,  with  the  Active  Verbs.    16mo.     2.\ 

HALLAM'S  (Henry)  AVOKKS  :— 

The  Constitutional  History  of  England,  from  the  Acces- 
sion of  Henry  the  [Seventh  to  the  Death  of  George  the  Second.  Library 
Ediliim,  3  Vols.  Svo.  30s.  Cabinet  Editior.,  3  Vols.  Post  Svo.  12«,  ktu.- 
de7tCs  Edition,  Post  Svo.  Is.  6rf. 

History    op    Europe    during   the   Middle   Ages.    Library 

Edition,  3  Vols.  Svo.  30s.  Cabinet  Edition,  3  Vols.  Post  Svo.  12*. 
Student's  Edition,  Post  Svo.  7s.  6J. 

Literary  History   op  Europe  during  the    ISth,  IGth,  and 

17TI1  Centuries.  Library  Edition,  3  Vols.  Svo.  36s.  Cabinet  Edition, 
4  Vols.    Post  Svo.  IGi. 

(Arthur)   Literary  Remains;    in  Verse    and  Prose. 

Portrait.     Fcap.  Svo.     3s.  fid. 
HAMILTON  (Andrew),    liheins-berg  :  Jlemorials  of  Frederick  the 

Great  and  PiincK  Heuiy  of  Prussia.     2  Vols.     CrownSvo.    21s. 
HART'S  ARMY  LIST.    {Fublis/ied  Quarterly  and  Annually.)] 

HATCH  (W.  M.).  The  Moral  Philosophy  of  Aristotle,  con- 
sisting of  a  translation  of  the  Nichoniacheaii  Etliics,  and  of  the  Para- 
pliTHhe  attributed  to  Andionicus,  with  an  liuroductoiy  Analysis  of  eaih 
book.    8vo.     It^s. 


PUBLISHKD   BY    MR.    MURK.W.  13 


HATHERLEY  (Lord).    The  Continuity  of  Scripture,  as  Declared 

by  tlie  TeBtimony  of  our  Lord  and  of  llie  Evaiigelt.st8  and  Ap().itlmi. 
Host  8vo.     2j.  M. 

HAY  (Sir  J.  H.  Drommokd).     Western  Biirbary,  its  WiM  Tribes 

and  Pavaee  AninmlH.     Post  8vo.    2j. 

IIAYWAKI)  (A.).     Sketches  of  Eminent  Statesmen  and  Writers. 

Contents;  Thiers,  Hisinarck,  Cavonr,  Mudernioli,  Montaleniberr,  Me|. 
bouriio,  Wellcsley,  llyrnn  and  Teniivson,  VcMiicc,  St.  Simon,  Si'vigne, 
Uu  IJotTmid,  IloUmid  Hoiisi',  SlTAwliarry  Hill.     2  Vols.     8vo.     asi. 

HEAD'S  (Sir  Francis)  WORKS:  — 

Tub  Rotal  Ekginekr.     Illustrations.     8vo.     12«. 
IjIkk  op  Sir  John  Buuooynk.     Post  8vo.     1.?. 
Hai'ID  Journets  across  thu  Pampas.     Post  8vo.     2/f. 
Bubbles  fiiom  tub  Brunnkn  op  Nassau.     Iliu'trations.    Post 

8vo.     7.«.  Cnl. 

Stokkrs  and  Pokers  ;    or,  the  London  and   North  Western 

RnilwRy.     l''>st  Svo.     'Ja. 

HE BEU'S  (Bishop)  Journals  in  India.     2  Vols.     Post  8vo.     7a. 

Poetical  Works.     Portrait.     Fcap.  8ro.     Ss.  6</. 

Hvmns  adapted  to  the  Church  Service.     16aio.    Is.  6d. 

HERODOTUS.     A   New  English  Version.     Edited,  witli   Notes 

and  Essays,  llistoiicul,  P^tlino^raphical,  and  Gt>"^rH()bical,  by  Canos 
Rawlisson,  Sir  II.  Uawlinsdx  and  Sib  J.  U.  Wilkinso.n.  Maps  and 
WnodcntJi.     4  Vols.     Svo.     4Sa. 

HEKRIES  (Rt.  Hon.  John).  Memoir  of  his  Public  Life  during 
the  Heitjns  of  George  III.  and  IV.,  William  IV.,  and  Queen  Victoria. 
Founded  on  his  Letters  and  oilier  Unpublished  Documeuts.  By  bis 
son,  Edward  Herries,  C.B.     2  Vols.     Svo.     24.<. 

HEESCHEL'S  (Carot.ink)  Memoir  and  Correspondence.  By 
Mas.  Juun  llEiiScuKL.     With  Portrait.     CrotvQ  Svo.     7i.  dU. 


FOREIGN   HANDBOOKS. 

HAND-BOOK— TRAVEL-TALK.   Englirth,  French,  German,  and 
Italian.    New  and  Kevised  Edition.     18ino.    3s.  6d. 

HOLLAND  AND  BELGIUM.     Map  and  Plans. 

Post  8vo.     6s. 

NORTH     GERMANY      and     THE     RHINE,— 


The  Black  Forest,  the  llartz.  ThUrinuerwahl,  Saxon  Switzerl.'tnd, 
Klisjen,  the  Giant  .Mountains,  Taunus,  (Jdenwald,  EIa.ss,  and  Loth- 
ringen.    Map  .ind  Plans.     Post  Svo.    10«. 

SOUTH     GERMANY,  — Wurtemburg,     Bavaria, 

Austria,  Styria,  Salzhiirg,  the  Alps,  Tyrol.  Hungary,  and  the  Danube, 
from  Ulm  to  the  HIack  Sea.   Maps  and  Pl.-ius.   Post  Svo.  10^, 

PAINTING.  German,  Flemish,  and  Dutch  Schools. 


Illustrations.  2  Vols.   Post  8vo.    24». 

LIVES  AND   WORKS   OF   EARLY   FLEMISH 


Painters.     Illustratinns.    Post  8vo.    7s.  6d. 

SWITZERL.\ND,    Alps  of  Savoy,  and  Piedmont. 

In  Two  Parts.     Maps  and  PUns.     Post  Svo.     lu*. 

FRANCE,  Part  I.   Normandy,  Brittany,  the  French 

Alps,  the  Loire,   Seine,  Garonne,  and  Pyrenees.      Maps  and   Plans. 
Post  8vo.    7*.  6d. 


14  LIST  OF  WORKS 


HAND-BOOK— FRANCE,  Part  II.  Central  France,  Auvergne,  the 
Cevennes,  Bnrf^iindy,  the  Khoiie  and  Saone,  Provence,  Niroes,  Aries, 
Marseilles,  the  French  Alps,  Alsace,  Lorraine,  Champagne,  &c.  Maps 
and  Plans.     Post  8vo.    7s.  6d. 

iMEDITERRANEAN— its  Principal  Islands,  Cities, 


ii 


Seaports,  Ilarhoiirs,  and  Hnrder  Lands.  For  Travellers  and  Yachtsmen, 
with  nearly  50  Maps  and  Plans.    Post  8vo.    20s. 

ALGERIA    AND    TUNIS.     Algiers,    Constantine, 

Oran,  the  Atlas  Range.    Maps  and  Plans.    Post  8vo.     10s. 

PARIS,  and  its  Environs.     Maps  and  Plans.     16mo. 

SPAIN,  Madrid,  The  Castiles,  The  Basque  Provinces, 

Leon,  The  Asturias,  Galicia,  Estremadura,  Andalnsia,  Konda,  Granada, 
Murcia,  Valpncia,  Catalonia,  Aragon.  Navarre,  The  Balearic  Islands, 
&c.  &c.    In  Two  Parts.     Maps  and  Plans.    Post  8vo.    20s. 

PORTUGAL,    Lisbon,    Porto,    Cintra,   Mafra,   &c. 


Map  and  Plan.    Post  Svo.    12s. 

NORTH    ITALY,     Turin,    IMikn,   Cremona,    the 


Italian  Lakes,  Bergamo,  Brescia,  Vemna,  Mantua,  Vicenza,  Padua, 
Ferrara,  Bologna,  Ravenna,  Rimini,  Piacenza,  Genoa,  the  Riviera, 
Venice,  Parma,  Modena,  and  Romagna.  Maps  and  Plans.  Post  Svo. 

CENTRAL  ITALY,  Florence,  Lucca,  Tuscany,  The 

Marches, Umhria,  &c.     Maps  and  Plans.     Post  Svo.  10s. 

ROME     AND  ITS    Environs.      "With  50  Maps  and 


Plans.    Post  8vo.    lO.t. 

SOUTH  ITALY,   Naples,  Pompeii,  Herculaneum, 

and  Vesuvius.    Maps  and  Plans.     Post  Svo.    10s. 

PAINTING.     The  Italian    Schools.     Illustrations. 


2  Vols.    Post  Svo.    30s. 

LIVES  OF  ITALIAN  PAINTERS,  from  Cimabce 


to    Bassano.    By  Mrs.  Jameson.     Portraits.    Post  Svo.     12s. 

NORWAY,  Christiania,  Bergen,  Trondhjem.    The 


Fjelds  and  Fjords.     Maps  and  Plans.     Post  Svo.    9s. 

SWEDEN,   Stockholm,  Upsala,    Gothenburg,   the 

Shores  of  the  Baltic,  &c.     Maps  and  PI  in.     Post  Svo.    6s. 

DENMARK,    Sleswig,  Holstein.   Copenhagen,  Jut- 


land, Iceland.    Maps  and  Plans.    Post  Svo.    6j. 

RUSSIA,  St.  Petersburg,  Moscow,   Poland,  and 


Finland.    Maps  and  Plans.    Post  Svo.     18s. 

GREECE,  the  Ionian    Islands,  Continental  Greece, 


Athens,  the  Peloponnesus,  the  Islands  of  the  ^Egean  Sea,  Alhania, 
Thessaly,  and  Macedonia.  In  Two  Parts.  Maps,  Plans,  and  Views. 
Post  Svo. 

TURKEY   IN   ASIA— Constantinople,    the    Bos- 

phorus,  Dardanelles,  Brousa,  Plain  of  Troy,  Crete,  ('yprus,  Smyrna, 
Ephesus,  the  Seven  Churches,  Coasts  of  the  Black  Sea,  Armenia, 
Euphrates  Valley,  Route  to  India,  K-c.  Maps  and  Plans.   Post  Svo.   15s. 

EGYPT,  including   Descriptions  of  the  Course  of 

the  Nile  through  Egypt  and  Nnhia,  Alexandria,  Cairo,  and  Thebes,  the 
Suez  Canal,  the  Pyramids,  the  Peninsula  of  Sinai,  the  Oases,  the 
Fyoom,  &c.    In  Two  Parts.     Maps  and  Plans.    Post  Svo.    15s. 

HOLY  LAND — Syria,   Palestine,  Peninsula    of 


Sinai,  Edom,  Syrian  Deserts,  Petra,  Damascus  ;  and  Palmyra.  Maps 
and  Plans.  Post  Svo.  20s.  *#*  Travelling  Map  of  Palestine.  In  a 
case.     liis. 

• —  BOMBAY  —  Poonah,    Becjapoor,    Kolapoor,    Goa, 

Jubulpooi-,  liKlore,  Surat,  Bnroda,  Ahmeuabad,  Somnauth,  Kurrachee, 
<Slc.     Map  and  Plang.     Post  ^vo.  15s. 


PUBLISHKI)   HY    Mk.  MURRAY,  15 


HANDBOOK— MADRAS— Trichinopoli.  Madura  Tinnevclly.Tuti- 

coiiii,  1!  iii^iiliin',  M ysDip,  TIim  Nilijii  is,  \Vyiia»(l,  ( lotacaiiiiiiiJ,  C'aliriit, 
Hyderabad,  AJaiita,  Klurii  Ciivt—,  \c.  Ma|isaiul  I'anK.  I'u^t  hv<>.  16.^. 
BBNGAIj  —  CaKutta,  Orissa,  Hriiisli  Bunnah, 
Ranpofn,  MiiiliiKin,  Mandahiy,  l)aijiliii(f,  Dacru,  I'atiiH,  (iaya, 
Hoiiaii's,  N.-W.  I'Miviiiccs,  Aihiliiiliacl,  C^aw  ii|i"H',  l,ncknow,  Airra, 
liwalioi,  Naiui  Ta',  Delhi,  Klititiiiaiiihi,  ttv-.  Majis  and  I'lauH.  I'ost 
bvo      20f.- 

PUNJAB  —  AVcsteru    l.'aviuttana,    KaKhnn'r,   ami 

Upper  Siadh.    Map.     Post  8vu. 


ENGLISH     HAND-BOOKS. 

HAND-BOOK— ENGLAND   AND    WALES      An    Alplmhelical 

llaiid-liiiok.     t'oiuleiii'd  into  One  Vulmne  (ur  the   Use  ol  'i'riivclli'rd. 
With  a  Map.     TostSio,     li'.s. 

MODERN    LONDON.    Maps   and    Plana.      IGmo. 

8s.  Gd. 
ENVIRONS  OF  LONDON  within    a  circuit  of  20 

miles.     2  Vols.     Crown  8vo.     2I.s. 

ST.    PAUL'S    Cathedral.      20    illustrations. 

Crown  8vo.     10.?.  &/. 
EASTERN  counties.  Chelmsford,  Harwich,  Col- 

chesfpr,  Maldon,  CJanibridcp,   Ely,    N^wnMikft,    Itmy   St     IMnmnds, 

Ipswich,  Woodbiid^jp,    I'eli.vstowp,    Lowestoft,     Norwich,    Yarmouth, 

Cromer,  &c.     .Map  and  I'lans.     I'ost  Svo.     12.». 
CATHEDRALS  of  Oxford,  PeterborouLch,  Norwich, 

Eiy,  and  Lincoln.     With  90  Ulnstrations.     Crown  8vo.     2I«. 
KKNT,    Canterbury,    Dover,    Raiusgate,   Sheerneps, 

Rochester.  Chatham,  Woolwich.     Maps  and  I'lans.     Host  Svo.     Ts.  Gd. 

SUSSEX,  Brighton.  Cliichester,  Worthing,  Hastings, 


Lewes,  Arnnde!,  <feo.     M«is  and  Plans.     Post  8vo.     6s 

SURREY  AND   H A NT.S,  Kingston,  Croydon,  Rei- 


gate,  Guildford,  Dorkinp,  Hi.xhill,  Winchester,  Sonth.snipton.  Ne* 
Forest,  Purtsmouth,  Isle  OF  VViouT,  &c.  Maps  and  Plans.  Post  8vo. 
10s. 

BERKS,  BUCKS,   AND    OXON,  AVindsor,   Eton, 

Reading,  Aylesbury.  Uxbndfje.  Wycombe,  Henley,  the  City  and  Uni- 
versity of  Oxford.  Blenlieini,  and  the  Descent  of  the  Thanies.  Maps 
and  Plans.     Post  8vo.    <.l<. 

WILTS,  DORSET,   AND   SOMERSET,   Salisl.nry, 

Chippenham,  Weymouth.  Sherborne,  Wells,  Bath,  Bristol,  Taunton, 
&c.     Map.     Post  '8vo.     \-2.-i 

DEVON,    Exeter,    Ilfracombe,    Linton,   Sidmouth, 

Dawlish,  Teignmoulh,  Plymouth,  Devonport,  Torquay.  Maps  and  Plans. 
PostSvo.    7 1.  fill. 

CORNW.VLL,    Launce.ston,    Penzance,    Falmouth, 


the  Lizinl.  Land's  Knd,  .te.     .Mhii^.     Po.st  Svo.     fis. 

CATHEDRALS   of  Winchester,   Salisbury,  Exeter, 

Wells,  Chichester,  K'ldiester,  Canterbury,  and  St.  -Mhann.  With  liiO 
IilustratiDns.  2  Vols,  Crown  8vo.  a6s.  St.  Albans  separately,  crown 
Svo.    6s. 

GLOUCESTER,  HEREFORD,  and  AVORCE.STER, 


Cirencester,  Cheltenhani,  Hiroud,  Tcwkesburv,  Leoninster,  Knss,  Mal- 
vern, Kidilcnniiister.  Dudley,  I'.romsgrov^,  Kve>hiini.    Ma]).   PostSvo. 

CATHEDRALS   of    Bristol,    Gloucester,    Hereford, 

Worcester,  and  Lichfield,     With  So  lUustra'ions.     Crown  Svo.     16.». 

NORTH    W.\LKS,  Bangor,  Carnarvon,   Beaumaris, 


Snowdnn,  Llanberis,  Dolgelly,  Cader  Idris,  Couwav,  Ac.     .Map.     Post 
8to.     7». 


16  LIST   OF   WORKS 


HAND-BOOK— SOUTH  WALES,  Monmouth,  Llandaff,  Merthjr, 
Vale  of  Neath,  Pembroke,  Carmarthen,  Tenby,  Swansea,  TCe  Wye,  &c. 
Map.     Post  !Svo.     7.1. 

CATHEDRALS     OP     BANGOR,     ST.    ASAPH, 

Llandnff,  ar.d  St.  David's      With  Illustrations.     Post  8vo      lo,« 

NORTHAWrTOKSHll.'E     AND      RUTLAND- 


Northampton,  Peterborongb,  Towcesier,  Daventry,  Maiket  Har- 
boroiiKli,  Kettering,  Wellingborough,  Tlirapston,  Stamford,  Upping- 
ham, Oakham.     Maps.     Post  Svo.     7s.  6(/. 

DERBY,     NOTTS,    LEICESTER,     STAFFORD, 


MatIock,Bake«elI,Chatsworlli,The  Peak,  Buxton,  Ilardwick,  Dove  Dale, 
Ashborne, Soutlnvell,  Manstii-ld,  Retford,  Burton,  Belvoir,  Melton  Mow- 
bray, Wolverhnnipton.Lichtield, Walsall. Tamworth.  Miip.  Post  Svo.  9s. 
SHKOl'SHIRE  AND  CHESHIHE,  Shrewsbury,  Lud- 
low, Bridgnorth,  Oswestry,  Chester,  Crewe,  Alderley,  Stockport, 
Birkenhead.     Maps  and  Plans.     Post  Svo.     6s. 

LANCASHIltE,     Warricgton,    Bury,    Manchester, 

Liverpool,  Buinley,  Clilheroe,  B«lton,  BlacUburn,  Wigan,  Preston, 
Rochdale,  Lancaster,  Southport,  Blackpool,  &c.  Maps  and  Plans 
Post  Svo.     7s.  Gd. 

YORKSHIRE,    Doncaster,   Hull,   Selhy,    Beverley, 

Pcaiboroiigli,  Whitby,  Harrogate,  Ripoii.  l>eds,  Waketinld,  Bradford, 
Ilalifa.x,  llu'lilerstirild,  Sheliield.     Map  and  Plans.     Post  Svo.    12s. 

CATHEDRALS  of  York,  Ripon,  Durham,  Carlisle, 

Chester,  and  Manchester.   With  GOIilustralions.    'J  Vols.   Cr  Svo     21s 

—  DURHAM     AND     NORTH  UMBb.RL.4ND,     New- 


castle, Darlington,  Gateshead,  Bishop  Auckland,  Stockton,  Hartlepool, 
Sunderland,  Shields,  Berwick-on-Tweed,  Morpeth,  Tynemouth,  Cold- 
"stieam,  Alnwick,  &o.     Map.     Post  Svo.     Ss 

WESTMORELAND     and    CUMBERLAND— Lan- 


caster, Furress  Abbey,  Ambleside,  Kendal,  Windtiniere,  Cmiston, 
K»  swick,  Grssmeie,  Ulawater,  Carlisle,  Cockermouih,  Penrith,  Appleby. 
Ma|).    Post  Svo. 
'*,*  Murray's  Map  of  the  Lake  Distbict,  on  canvai.     3.<.  G(/. 

SCOTLAND,  Edinburgh,  Melrose,  Kelso,  Glasgow, 

Dumfries,  Ayr,  Stilling,  Arran,  Tie  Clyde,  Oban,  Inverary,  Loch 
Lomond,  Loch  Katrine  and  Trossachs,  Caledonian  Canal,  Inverness, 
Perth,  Dundee,  Aberdeen,  Braeuiar,  bkye,  Cailhnes.s,  Ross,  Suther- 
land, ic.     Maps  and  Plans.     Post  (-vo.     9s. 

IRELAND,    Dublin,   Belfast,   th-^    Giant's    Cause- 

wny,  Donegal,  Galway,  We.\lord,  Cork,  Limerick,  Waterford,  Killar- 
nej,  Biintiy,  Clengaritt,  &c.     Maps  and  Plans.     Post  Svo.     10s. 

HAYWARD  (A.).     The  Art  of  Diuing  ;  or,  Gastronomy  and  Gas- 
tronomers.  Post  Svo.    '2.S-. 
HOLLWAY  (J.  0.).    A  Month  in  Norway.     Fcap.  Svo.     2«. 
HONEY  BEE.     By  Rev.  Thomas  James.     Fcap.  Svo.     Is, 
HOOK  (Dean).      Church  Dictionary.      Svo.     16s. 

(Theodore)  Life.  By  J.  G.  Lookhart.     Fcap.  Svo.     1$. 

HOl'E  (A.  J.  Beresford).     Worship  in   the  Church  of  England. 

8vo.     9s.,KT,  ropnlrir  Sdavliims  f'roin.    Svo.     2s.  6d. 

WORSHIP   AND   ORDER.     Svo.     9,«. 

HORACE  ;  a  New  Edition  of  the  Text.     Edited  by  Dean  Milman. 

With  100  Woodcuts.    Crjwn  Svo.    7s.  Gd. 
HOSACK  (John).     The  rise  and  growth  of  the  Law  of  Nations  :  as 

established  by  general  usage  and  by  treaties,  from  tli«  earliest  times 

to  the  tieaty  of  Ulrecht.    Sm>.     12i. 

HOUGHTON'S  (Lord)  Monographs,  Personal  and  SociaL     With 
Portraits.    Crown  Svo.    ICs.  Gd. 

Poetical   Works.     Collected   Edition.     With  Por- 
trait.   2  Vela.    Fcap.  Si'o.    I'Is. 


PUBLISHED  BY   MR.  MURRAY. 


17 


llOUSTOU.^  (Mrs.).     Twenty  Yeirfl  ia  the  Wild  West  of  Ireland, 

or  Life  iu  Coi.iiaiiRlit.     Post  bvo.    9s.  ,    ,rr     i 

HOME    AND    COLONIAL    LIBRARY.     A    Series    of    Works 

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By  Lord  Ellbsmbbk.    2s. 

12.  THE   WAYSIDE  CROSS.      By 

CaPT.  MlLMASI.      23. 

13.  SKETCHES  OF  GERMAN  LIFE. 

By  Sib  A.  Gokdox.    3».  6d. 

14.  THE  BATTLE  OP  WATERLOO. 

By  Rbv.  G.  R.  Gleio.    3».6d. 

15.  AUTOBIOGRAPHY  OF  STEF- 

FENS.    23. 

16.  THE     BRITISH    POETS.      By 

Thomas  Campbell.    3s.  Sd. 

17.  HISTORICAL      ESSAYS.       By 

LoBD  Mahon.    3a.  6<i 

18.  LIFE   OF    LORD   CLIVE.     By 

Rkv.  G.  R.  Glkiq.    Ss.ed. 

19.  NORTH  -  WESTERN       RAIL- 

WAY.   By  Sib  F.B.  Hbad.    2s. 

20.  LIFE  OF  MUNRO.    By  Rkv.  G. 

K.  Glsio.    3^.  6d. 


SPAIN. 
3s.  6d. 


CLASS    B 
TRAVELS,    AND 
By  GEUBas 


VOYAGES, 

1.  BIBLE  IN 

BoBBOW. 

2.  GYPSIES  OF  SPAIN.  By  Gkobqb 

BoBBOW.      3s.  6d. 

8&4.  JOURNALS  IN  INDIA.  By 
Bishop  Hebkb.    2  Vols.    7s. 

6.  TRAVELS  IS  THE  HOLY  LAND. 
Uy  Ibby  and  Manqlks.    2s. 

6.  MOROCCO  AND  THE  MOORS. 

By  J.  Dbummond  Hay.    2s. 

7.  LETTERS  FROM  the  BALTIC. 
By  a  Lady. 

NEW  SOUTH  WALES.  By  Mbs. 

Mebeditb.    25. 
THE  WEST  INDIES.    By  M.  G. 

Lewis.    2s. 
SKETCHES  OF  PERSIA.      By 

SiB  Jobs  Malcolm.    3s.  6d. 
MEMOIRS  OF  FATHER  KIPA. 
2s. 
12  &  13.  TYPEE  AND  OMOO.     By 

Uebmanh  Melville.  2  Vols.  7». 

14.  MISSIONARY  LIFE  IN    CAN- 
By  Rev.  J.  Abbott.    2». 


ADVENTURES. 


15.  LETTERS  FROM  MADRAS.  By 
a  Ladt.    2s. 

16.  HIGHLAND      SPORTS. 

Cuables  St.  John.    3*.  6d. 


By 

By  Sia 


8 


10 


11 


17.  PAMPAS  JOURNEYS. 
F.  B.  Head.    25. 

18   GATHERINGS   FROM  SPAIN. 
By  Ricuabo  Fobd.    3s.  6d. 

19.  THE    RIVER    AMAZON.      By 

W.  H.  Edwabdb.    it. 

20.  MANNERS    &    CUSTOMS   OF 

INDIA.  ByREV.C.ACLAND.  2*. 

21.  ADVENTURES     IN    MEXICO. 

By  G.  F.  RuxTON.    8s.  6d. 

22.  PORTUGAL    AND    GALICIA. 

By  Lobd  Cabnakvon.    3s.  6d. 

23.  BUSH  LIFE  IN  AUSTRALIA. 

By  Rev.  H.  W.  Hatoabth.    25. 

24.  THE   LIBYAN   DESERT.      By 

Baylb  St.  JoHif.    2a. 

25.  SIERRA  LEONE.     By  A  Lady. 

3i.  6(1. 


ADA.    _. 

Each  work  may  be  had  separately. 


18  LIST  OF  WORKS 


HUME  (The  Student's).  A  History  of  Eugliiud,  from  the  Inva- 
sion of  Julius  Ceesar  to  the  Revolution  of  1688.  New  Edition,  revised, 
corrected,  and  conrinued  to  tli«  Treaty  of  Berlin,  1878.  By  J.  S. 
Brewkr,  M.A.  "With  7  Coluunnl  JUps  &70  Woodcuts.   Post  8vo.  78.6d. 

HUTCHINSON  (Gen.).  Dog  Breakiug,  with  Odds  and  Ends  for 
tliose  who  love  the  Dog  and  the  Gun.  With  40  Illustrations.  Crown 
Svo.    7j.  ed. 

*»*  A  Summary  of  the  Rules  for  Gamekeepers.     Is. 

HUTTON  (H.  E.).  PrincipiaGr£eca;  an  Introduction  to  the  Study 
of  Greek.  Comprehending  Grammar,  Delectus,  and  Exercise-book, 
with  Vocabularies.     Sixth  EdUion.     t2mo.     3s.  6d. 

HUTTON  (James).  James  and  Philip  A'an  Artevelde.  Two 
remarkable  Episodes  iu  the  aintls  of  Flinders  :  with  a  de-^cription  of 
file  state  of  Society  in  Flaudeis  in  the  14th  Century.      Cr.  Svo.    10«.  6d. 

ITYMNOLOGY,  Dictionary  of.     See  Julian. 

ICELAND.     [See  Coles,  Dufferin.] 

INDIA.     [See  Elphinstone,  Hand-book,  Smith,  Temple.] 

IKBY  AND  MANGLES'  Travels   in  Egypt,    Nubia,  toyria,  and 

the  Holy  Land.    Post  Svo.    2s. 
JAMESON    (Mrs.).      Lives    of    the    Early    Italian    Painters— 

and  the  Progress  of  Painting  in  Italy — Cimabue   to  Bassano.    With 

50  Portraits.     Post  Svo.     12s. 

JAPAN.     [See  Bird,  Mossman,  Mounset,  Eeed.] 

JENNINGS   (Louis  J.).     Field  Paths  and  Green  Lanes  in  Surrey 

and  Sussex.     Illustrations.     Crown  Svo.     10s.  6<i. 

Eambles  among  the  Hills  in  the  Peak  of  Derbyshire 

and  on  the  Sauth  Downs.     With  sketches  of  people  by  the  way.     With 
23  lUuslratious.     Crown  Svo.    12«. 

JERVIS  (Eev.  W.  H.).  The  Gallican  Church,  from  the  Con- 
cordat of  Bologna,  1516,  to  the  Revolution.  With  an  Introduction. 
Portraits.    2  Vols.    Svo.     28s. 

JESSE  (Edward).    Gleanings  in  Natural  History.  Fcp.Svo.   Zs.Gd. 
JEX-BLAKE  (PvEV.  T.  W.).     Life  in  Faith:    Sermons  Preached 

at  Cheltenham  and  Rugbv.     Fcap.  Svo.     3s.  6J. 

JOHNSON'S  (Dr.  Samuel)  Life.  By  James  BoswelL  Including  the 
Tour  to  the  Hebrides.    Edited  by  Mb.  Choker.  1  Vol.   Royal  Svo.   125. 

JULIAN  (Rev.  John  J.).  A  Dictionary  of  Hymnologj'.  A 
Companion  to  E.xisling  Hymn  Books.  Settin'.;  forth  the  Oiigin  and 
History  of  tlie  Hymns  contained  in  th"  Principal  Hymnals  used  by  the 
Churches  of  England,  Scotland,  and  li  eland,  and  various  Dissenting 
Bodies,  with  Notices  of  their  Authors.     Post  Svo.  [In  the  Press, 

JUNIUS'  Handwriting  Professionally  investigated.  By  Mr.  Chabot, 
Expert.  With  Preface  and  Collateral  Evidence,  by  the  Hon.  Edwabb 
TwiRLETON.     With  Facsimiles,  Woodcuts,  &c.    4to.    £3  3s. 

XERR  (R.  Malcolm).  Student's  Blackstone.  A  Systematic 
Abridgment  of  the  entire  Commentaries,  adapted  to  the  present  state 
of  the  law.    Post  Svo.     7s.  6d. 

KING  EDWARD  VIth's  Latin  Grammar.     12mo.     3s.  6d. 

First  Latin  Book.     12mo.     2a.  6d. 

KING  (R.  J.).     Archaeology, Travel  and  Art;  being  Sketches  and 

Studies,  Historical  and  Descriptive.    Svo.     V2s. 
KIRK  (J.  Foster).     History  of  Charles  the  Bold,  Duke  of  Bur- 
gnndy.     Portrait.     3  Vols.    Svo.     45». 

KIRKES'   Handliook    of    Physiology.     Edited    by    W.  Morrant 

Bakeb,  K.R.C.S.     Willi4U0'inustrations.     Post  Svo.' 14s. 

KUGLEK'S  Handbook  of  Painting.— The  Italian  Schools,  Re- 
vised and  Remodelled  from  the  most  recent  Researches.  By  Lady 
Eastlake.     With  ho  Illustrations.     2  Vols.    Crown  Svo.    30«. 


PUBLISHED  BY  MR.  MURRAY.  19 


KUGLEli'S    Handbook  of  Painting. — The  German,  Flemish,  and 

Piitoli  Schools.    Ktivised   and  in  part  rc-writlen.    By  J.  A.  Cuoytk 

Wilbfr)  Illustrations.     2  Vols.    Crown  8vo.    21». 
LANE  (E.  W.).    Account  of  the  Manners  and  Customs  of  Modern 

F-Kyptians.    'Witli  llliistnitioiis.     'J  Vols.   Post  8vo.     \'2t. 
LAYAUD  (A.  H.).    Nineveh  and  its  Remains;  a  Popular  Account 

of  Researclies  and    Discoveries  amidst  the   Kulns  of  Assyria.    With 

Illustrations.     Post  8vo.    7s  6-/. 

Nineveh  and  Babylon  ;    A  Popular  Account  of  Dis- 

orerirts  in  the  Ruins,  with  Travels  in  Armenia,  Kurdistnn  and  the 
Desjert,  during  a  Second  Eipeditioa  to  Assyria.  With  lllustratious 
Post  Svo.    7.1.  ad. 

LEATHES  (Stanley).  Practical  Hebrew  Grammar.  With  the 
Hebrew  Text  of  Genesis  i. — vl.,  and  Psalms  i.— vi.  Grammatical 
Analysis  and  Vocabulary.     Post  8vo.    7s.  6d. 

LENNEP  (Rev.  H.  J.  Van).  Missionary  Travels  in  Asia  Minor. 
With  Illustrations  of  Biblical  History  and  Archaeology.  Map  and 
Woodcuts.    "2  Vols.    Post  Svo.    24s. 

Modern  Customs  and  Manners  of  Bible  Lands  in 

Illnstratiou  of  Scripture.     Maps  and  Illus'ratlons.    2  Vols.    Svo.    21.«. 

LESLIE  (C.  R.).    Handbook  for  Young  Painters.     Illustrations. 

Post  Svo.    7s.  6d. 

Life  and  Works  of  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds.     Portraits. 

2  Vols.     Svo.    42«. 

LETO  (PoMPONio).     Eight  Months  at  Rome  during  the  Vatican 

Council.    Svo.     12». 
LETTERS  From  the  Baltic.     By  a  Lady.     Post  Svo.     2«. 
Madras.     By  a  Lady.    Post  Svo.    2«. 

Sierra  Leone.    By  a  Ladt.    Post  Svo.   Bs.  6d. 

LEVI  (Leone).     History   of  British  Commerce;    and   Economic 

Progress  of  the  Nation,  from  176.'5  to  187S.     Svo.    ISs. 

LEX  SALICA;  the  Ten  Texts  with  the  Glosses  and  the  Lex 
Emendata.  Synoptically  edited  by  .J.  11.  Hrsskls.  With  Notes  on 
the  Prankish  WorJs  in  the  Lex  Salica  by  II.  Kkrn,  of  Leyden.  4to.  42s. 

LIDDELL  (Dean).    Student's  History  of  Rome,  from  the  earliest 

Times  to  the  establishment  ot  the  Empire.  Woodcuts.   Post  Svo,  7s.  6d. 

LISPINGS  from  LOW  LATITUDE.S;  or,  the  Journal  of  the  Hon. 

ImpiilsiaGushington.  Edited  bv  Loan  Dufferin.  With24  Plates. 4to. 21*. 

LIVINGSTONE  (De).      First   Expedition   to  Africa,   1840-56. 

Illustrations.     Post  Svo.    7*.  6d. 
Second  Expedition  to  Africa,  1858-64.     Illustra- 

tionB.    Post  Svo.   7s.  6d. 
— ■ —  Last  Journal.^  in   Central  Africa,   from  1865  to 

his  Death.  Continued  by  a  Nurrative  of  his  last  moments  and  hufferings. 

By  Rev.  HoBACK  Waller.    Maps  and  Illustrations.    2  Vols.    Svo.    15». 

Personal  Life.      From  his  unpublished  Journals 

and   Correspondence.      By  Wm.  (i.  Blaikie,   U.D.      Popular  Edition. 
With  Map  and  Portrait.    Svo.    6,«. 

LIVINGSTONIA.      Journal  of  Adventures  in   Exploring  Lake 

Nyassa,  and  Establishing  a  Missionary  Settlement  there.    IJy  E.   D, 

VoiTKo,  R.N.     Maps.     Post  Svo.     7i.M. 
LIVONIAN   TALES.     By  the   Author   of   "  Letters    from    the 

BalUc."    Post  Svo.     2». 
LOCKHART  (J.  G.).    Ancient  Spanish  Ballads.     Historical  and 

Romantic.    Translated,  with  Notes.    Illustrations.    Crown  Svo.    6». 

Life  of  Theodore  Hook.     Fcap.  Svo.     1«. 

LOUDON  (Mrs.).    Gardening  for  Ladies.     With  Directions  and 

Calendar  of  Operations  for  Every  Month.  Woodcuts.  Fcap.  Svo.  3i.  6J. 

c2 


20  LIST  OF  WORKS 


LUTHER.     Three   Primary  Works  of  the  Keformcr.     Christian 

Liberty — The  Bahylfinian  Captivity  of  the  Church— Anil  the  Address  to 
the  Nobility  of  the  German  Na'ion.    Translated  by  C.  A.  Buchheim. 
Edited,  with  Introducliins,  by  Henry  Wacr,  D.D.     Crown  8to. 
LYALL  (Sir  Alfred  C),  K  C.B.     Atiatic  Studies;  Religious  and 

Social.     8vo.     12v. 

LYELL  (Sir  Charles).  Student's  Elements  of  Geology.  With 
Table  of  British  Fossils  and  600  Illustrations.  Third  Edition,  Revised. 
Post  8vo.    9s. 

Life,  Letters,  and  Journals.     Edited  l>y  hia  sister-in-law, 

Mrs.  Lyell.   With  Portraits.    2  Vols.    8vo.     30s. 
(K.  M.).     Geographical  Handbook  of  Ferns.    With  Tables 


to  show  their  Distribution.     Post  8\f0.    Is.  6d. 

LYNDHURST  (Lord).     [See  Martia.] 

LYTTON  (Lord).  A  Memoir  of  Julian  Fane.    With  Portrait.    Post 

8vo.    5s. 

McCLlNTOCK  (  Sir  L.).  Narrative  of  the  Discovery  of  the 
Fate  of  Sir  John  Franklin  and  his  Companious  in  the  Arctic  Seas. 
With  Illustrations.    Post  8vo.    7t.  ed. 

MACDOUGALL  (Col.).  Modern  Warfare  as  Influenced  by  Modem 
Artillery.     With  Plans.    Post  8vo.    12s. 

MACGKEGOR  (J.).  Rob  Roy  on  the  Jordan,  Nile,  Red  Sea,  Gen- 
nesareth,  &c.  A  Canoe  Cruise  in  Palebtine  and  Egypt  and  the  Waters 
of  Damascus.    With  70  Illustrations.    Crown  8vo.     7s.  6d. 

MAETZNER'S  English  Grammar.  A  Methodical,  Analytical, 
and  Historical  Treatise  on  the  Orthography,  Prosody,  Inflections,  and 
Syntax.     By  Clair  J.  Grece,  LL.D.     3  Vols.    Svo.     36s. 

MAHON  (Lord),  see  Stanhope. 

MAINE  (Sir  H.  Sdmner).    Ancient  Law  :  its  Connection  with  the 

Early  History  of  Society,  and  its  Relation  to  Modorn  Ideas.     Svo.    12s. 

■ Village  Communities  in  the  East  and  West.     Svo.     12s. 

Early  History  of  Institutions.     Svo.  12s. 

Diesertations     ou     Early    Law    and    Custom.      Being 

Selections  from  Lectures  delivered  at  Oxford.    Svo.     12j. 

MALCOLM  (Sir  John).  Sketches  of  Persia.  Post  Svo.  3«.  6d. 
MANSEL  (Dean).  Letters,  Lectures,  and  Reviews.  Svo.  12«. 
MANUAL     OF     SCIENTIFIC    ENQUIRY.      For  the   Use  of 

Travellers.    Edited  by  Rev.  R.  Main.  Post  Svo.    3s.  6rf.    {Published  by 
order  of  the  Lords  of  the  Admiralty.) 

MARCO   POLO.     The  Book   of  Ser  Marco   Polo,  the  Yenetian, 

Concerning  the  Kingdoms  and  Marvels  of  the  East.  A  new  English 
Version.  Illustrated  by  the  light  of  Oriental  Writers  and  Modern 
Travels.  By  Col.  UBURr  Yule.  Maps  and  Illustrations.  2  Vols. 
Medium  Svo.  63«. 
MARKHAM  (Mrs.).  History  of  England.  From  the  First  Inva- 
sion by  the  Romans,  continued  down  to  1880.  Woodcuts.  12mo.   3s.  6rf. 

History  of  France.    From  the  Conquest  of  Gaul  by 

Julius  Csesar,  continued  down  to  1S78.     Woodcuts.    12mo.    3s.  &d. 

History  of  Germany.    From  its  Invasion  by  Marin?, 


continued  down  to  the  completion  of  Colngue  Cathedral.     Woodcuts. 
12mo.    3s,6(i. 

(Clements  II.).  A  Popular  Account  of  Peruvian  Bark 

and  its  introduction  into  British  India.    With  Maps.    Post  Svo.    14s. 

MARRYAT  (Joseph).  History  of  Modern  and  Mediaeval  Pottery 
and  Porcelain.  With  a  Description  of  the  Manufacture.  Plates  and 
Woodcuts.    Svo.    42s. 

MARSH  (G.  p.).  Student's  Manual  of  the  English  Language. 
Edited  with  Additions.     By  Dr.  Wm.  Smith.    Post  Svo.    Is.  6d. 


PUBLISHKD  BY  Mlt.  MURRAY.  21 


MARTIN  (Sir  Tdkodorb).     Memoir  of  the  Life  of  Lord  Lynd- 

hiirst,    three  times  Lord  Clinncrllor  of  Eiit;lnnd.      From   Letteru    and 
Papers  iu  possession  of  his  fmnily.     With  I'urtrait.     8vo. 

MASTERS  in  English  Theology.      Lectures  delivered  at  King's 

Colli'gp,  London,  in  1877,  by  Kmlnent  Divines.     With  Introduction  by 
CRnon  Barry.      I'ost  8vo.     7s.  6(/. 

MATTHLE'S    Okekk     Grammar.      Abridged      by     Blomfikld, 

Jteviifl  by  E.  S.  Uiiohkk.     I'Jmo.     4». 

MAUREL'S   Character,   Actioua,   and    Writings    of    Wellington. 

Fcap.  8vo.    la.  6J. 
MAYO  (Lord).     Sport  in  Abyssinia;  or,  the  Mareb  and  Tack- 

azzee.     Witli  Illustrations,    Crown  8vo.    12j. 
MELVILLE    (Hermann).      Marquesas  and   South    Sea   Islands. 

2  Vols.    Post  8vo.     7». 

MEREDITH  (Mrs.  Coarles).   Notes  and  Sketches  of  New  Sontb 

Wales.    Post  8vo.    2s. 
MEXICO.     [See  Brocklehukst.] 
MICHAEL  ANGELO,  Sculptor,  Fainter,  and  Architect.     His  Life 

and  Works.    By  C,  Heath  IYilsok,     With  Portrait,  Illustrations  and 

Index.     8vo.     15». 

MIDDLETON    (Chas.    H.)    A    Descriptive    Catalogue    of    the 

Etched    Work   of  Rembrandt,    with    Life  and    Introductions.     With 
Explanatory  Cuts,     iledium  8vo.     3la.6d. 

MILLINGTON  (Rev.  T.  S.).  Signs  and  Wonders  in  the  Land  of 
Ham,  or  the  Ten  Plagues  of  Egypt,  with  Ancient  and  Modern  Illustra- 
tions.    Woodcuts.      I'csi  8vo.     Is.  6d, 

MILMAN'S  (Dkan)  WORKS:— 

History  of  the  Jews,  from  the  earliest  Period  down  to  Modem 

Times.    3  VoH.     Post  8vo.     18s. 

Early  Christianity,  from  the  Birth  of  Christ  to  the  Aboli- 
tion of  Paganism  in  the  Roman  Empire.   3  Vols.    Post  8vo.    ISt. 

Latin    Christianity,   includiug   that  of  the  Popes  to    the 
Pontificate  of  ^ic^lolhs  V.    9  Vols.    Post  8vo.    S-lx. 

Handbook  to   St.    Paul's  Cathkdral.     Woodcut.".      Crown 
bvo.     10s.  Sd. 

QuiNTi  HoRATii  Flacci  Opera.     Woodcuts.     Sm.  8vo.  7s.  6rf. 

Fall  of  Jerusalem.     Fcap.  8vo.    1«. 
MILMAN'S  (Capt.  E.  A.)  Wayside  Cross.     Post  8vo.    2s. 

(Bishop,   D.D.,)   Life.      With   a  Selection   from    his 

Correspondence  and  Journals.      By  his  Sister.     Map.    8vo.    12j. 

MIVAKT  (St.  George).     Lessons  from  Nature;  as  manifested  in 

Mind  and  Matter.    8vo.     lbs. 
The  Cat.     An  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Backboned 

Animali'.eNpfcially  Mammals.  With'JOOIllustrations.  MedlumSvo.  30». 

MOGGRIDOE  (M.  W.).    Method  in  Almsgiving.     A  Handbook 

for  Helpers.     Post  Svo.     2.i.  tV/. 

MOORE   (Thomas).     Life  and  Letters  of  Lord  Byron.      Cabinet 

Edition.     Wiih     Plates.     6    Vols.     Fcap.  Svo.    18*.;    I'opular  Sditicn, 
with  Portraits.     Royal  Svo.    7».  M. 

MORESBY  (Capt.),  R.N.  Discoveries  in  New  Guinea,  Polynesia, 
Torres  Straits,  &c.,  during  the  cruise  of  11. M.S.  Basilisk.  Map  and 
Illustrations.    8vo.     15s. 

MOBSMAN  (Samuel).     New  Japan;  the  Land  of  the  Rising  Sun  ; 

its  Annals  during   the  past  Twenty  Years,  recording  the  remarkable 
Frogresa  of  the  Japanese  in  Western  Civilisation.  With  Map.  Svo.  lbs. 


22  LIST  OF  WORKS 


MOTLEY  (J.  L.).  History  of  the  United  Netherlands :  from  the 
Deafhof  William  the  Silent  to  the  Twelve  Years' Truce,  1609.  Portraits. 
4  Vols.    Post  8vo.     6s.  each. 

Life     and    Death    of    John    of    Barneveld, 

Advocate  of  Holland.  \Vith  a  View  of  the  Primary  Causes  and 
Movements  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  lUubtiatione.  2  Vols. 
Post  8vo.     12s, 

MOZLEY   (Canon).    Treatise    on   the   Aupustinian    doctrine    of 

Prede'itination,  with  an  Annlysis  of  the  Contents,     Crown  8vo.    9s. 
MUIRHEAD  (Jab.).  The  Vaux-de-Vire  of  Mait^tre  Jean  Le  Houx, 
Advocate  of  Vire.     Translated  and  Edited.     With  Portrait  and  Jllii»- 
trations.    Svo.     21s. 

MUNRO'S  (General)  Life  and  Letters.     By  Rev.  G.  K.  Gleio. 

Post  Svo.    3s.  6d. 

MURCHISON  (Sir  Roderick).  Siluria  ;  or,  a  History  of  the 
Oldest  Rocks  containing  Organic  Remains.   Map  and  Plates.  Svo.    18s. 

Memoirs.     With  Notices  of  his  Contemporaries, 

and  Rise  and  Progress  of  Paleeozoic  Geology,  by  Archibald  Geikie. 
Portraits.    2  Vols.    8vo.    30s. 

MURRAY  (A.  S.).     A  History  of  Greek  Sculpture.     With  Illus- 
trations.   2  Vol-).     Royal  8vo.     21s  each. 
Vol.  I.— From  the  Earliest  Time's  down  to  the  Age  of  Phidias. 
Vol.  II.  — Phidias  and  his  Succt-ssurd. 

MUSTERS'  (Capt.)  Patagonians;  a  Year's  Wanderings  over 
Untrodden  Ground  from  the  Straits  of  Magellan  to  the  Rio  Negro. 
Illustrations.     Post  Svo.      7s,  6il. 

NAPIER  (Sir  Wm.).    English  Battles  and  Sieges  of  the  Peninsular 

War.     Portrait.    Post  Svo.    9s. 
NAPOLEON        AT        FoNTAINEBLEATT         AND      ElBA.         Joumal       of 

Occurrences   and    Notes  of  Conversations.    By   Sir  Nkil  Campbell. 

Portrait.     Svo.    15s. 

NARES  (Sir  Geoeoe),  R.N.     Official  Report  to  the  Admiralty  of 

the  recent  Arctic  Expedition.     Map.    8vo.    2s.  Gd. 
NASMYTH    (James).     An  Autobiography.      Edited  by  Samuel 

Smiles,  LL.U.,  with  Portrait,  and  70  Illustrations.    Crowu  Svo.     16s. 
NAUTICAL    ALMANAC    (The).     {By  Authority.)      2«.  6d. 
NAVY  LIST.    (Monthly  and  Quarterly.)    Post  Svo. 
NEW    TESTAMENT.     With   Short    Explanatory  Commentary. 

By  Archdeacom  Chdrton,  M.A.,  and  the  Bishop  op  St.  David's. 
With  110  authentic  Views,  &c.     2  Vols.     Crown  Svo.     '^Is.  bound. 

NEWTH  (Samuel).  First  Book  of  Natural  Philosophy  ;  an  Intro- 
duction to  the  study  of  Statifs.  I'yuamics,  Hydrostatics,  Light,  Heat, 
and   Sound,   with   numerous    Examples.     Small  Svo.    St.  6d. 

Elements  of  Mechanics,  iucluding  Hydrostatics, 

with  numerous  Examples.    Small  Svo.    8s.  6d. 

Mathematical  Examples,    A   Graduated   Series 


of  Elementary  Examples  in  Arithmetic,  Algebra,  Logarithms,  Trigo- 
nometry, and  Mechanics.    Small  Svo.    Ss.  6d. 

NICOLAS  (Sir  Harris),  Historic  Peerage  of  England.  Exhi- 
biting  the  Origin,  Descent,  and  Present  State  of  every  Title  of  Peer- 
age which  has  existed  in  thin  Country  since  the  Conques'.  By 
William   Courthopb.    Svo.    20s. 

NILE  GLEANINGS.     See  Stuart. 

NJMROD,;  On  the  Chace— Turf— and  Road.  With  Portrait  and 
Plates.    Crown  Svo.  5s.    Or  with  Coloured  Plates,  7s.  6i. 

NORDHOFF  (Chas.).  Communistic  Societies  of  the  United 
states;  inchuling  Detailed  Accounts  of  (he  Shakers,  the  Aniana, 
Oneida,  Beihell,  Aurora,  Icarian  and  other  existing  Societies.  With 
40  Illustrations.    Svo.    16s. 


PUBLISHKI)   BY   MR.    MUKKAY. 


KOllTHCOTE'S  (Sir  John)  Notebook  in  the  Long  Parlinmcut. 

Contftlniiig  Pmcerdings  during  its  First   ScKsifm,  lf;iO.     Kdiicd,  with 

a  Memoir,  by  A.  II.  A.  Ilniniltcn.     Crown  8vo.    9'-. 
OTTER  (K.  II.).     Wiuterr*  Abroad  :  Some  Iiiforiuatiou  rcflpcctirn; 

Plrtce.s  \  isitcd  bv  lilt!  .\iitlior  mi  accnuiit  of  bis  llunllli.    Intundrd  lur 

the  Ui>e  uiid  (Iiiiditiice  (if  liivnliilK.     It.  td. 
Con  I  KNTS. 

Australia  :—  MellinuiiiP,  'rasiintnin,  Sydney,  Queensland,  The  Riveiina, 

AIkrts,  Ejjypt,  Cape  of  Good  Kope,  Davo. 
OWEN  (LiKDT.-CoL.K    Principles  and  Practice  of  J[otiern  Artillery, 

including  Artillery  Maleiia),  (iiinncry.  and  OrgaiiiHatKni  and  Use  ot 

Artillery  in  Warfare.     With  Illiist;atioiis.      Hvo.     lo«. 

OXENHAM  (Hkv.  W.).    Englisli  Notes  for  Latin  Elegiacs  ;  designed 

for  early  Pro6cients  in  the  Art  of  Latin  Versitication,  with  Prefatory 
Rules  of  Composition  iu  Elegiac  Metre.     P2niii.    3a.  »>/<. 
PAGE'r    (LoKD   Gkorqe).       The    Li^'ht    Cavalry    Brigade   in   the 
CriMK'.i.    CoBtiiiiiini;  E.\tracls  from  Journal  aud  Correspoudencc.   Map. 
Crown  8vo.     lO.v.  M. 

PALGKAVE  (K.  H.  L).     Local  Taxation  of  Great  Britain  and 

Ireland.    8vo.     6.«. 

PALLISEU  (Mits.).    Mottoes  for  Jlonuments,  or  Epitaphs  htlccted 

for  (.if iicral  Use  and  study.     With  Illustrations.     Crown  8vo.     'a.fvi. 
PALMEK  (Profes.sor  E.  H.).     His  Life  and  Achievements,  from 
h'S  Bi'th  to  his  Murder  by  the  Arabs  of  the  Dosert,  IS.'^J.     By  W.M.rKii 
Bi-.SAN  T,  .M..V.     With  ruitrair.     Crown  8vo.     1?^. 

PARIS  (Dr.)  Philosophy  in  Sport  made  Science  in  Earnest  ; 
or,  the  First  Principles  of  Natural  Philosophy  inculcated  by  aid  of  the 
Toys  aud  Sports  of  Youth.     Woodcuts.  Post  8vo.  7s. Bd. 

PARKYNS'   (Mansfield)  Three  Years'  Residence  in  Abyssinia: 

with  Travels  in  that  Country.    AVitli  llhistrations.     Pist  bvo.    7«.  6d. 

PEEL'S  (Sir  Robert)  Memoirs.     2  Vols.     Post  8vo.     155. 
PENN  (Richard).     Maxims  and  Hints  for  an  Angler  and  Chess- 
player.   Woodcuts.    Fcap.  8vo.    Is. 
PERCY   (John,  M.D.).     Metallurgy.     Fuel,   Wood,   Peat,   Coal, 

Charco:il,  Coke.     Fire-Clays.     Illustrations.     8vn.    30.«. 

Lead,  including  part  of  Silver.    Illustrations.    Svo.    30«; 

Silver  aud  Gold.      Parti.     Illustrations.     Svo.     30s. 

J'ERIJY  (Kev.   Canon).     Life  of  St.   Hugh  of  Avalon,  Bishop  of 

Lincoln.     Post  Svo.     K'.s.  fd. 

History  of  the  English  Church.     See  Students' Manuals. 

PHILLIPS  (Samuel).  Literary  Essays  from  "  The  Times."     With 

Portrait.     2  Vols.      Foap.8vo.     7s. 

POLLOCK  (C.  E.).  A  book  of  Family  Prayers.  Selected  from 
the  Liturpy  of  the  Church  of  England.     16nio.     cs.  &d. 

POPE'S  (Alexander)  Works.  With  Introductions  and  Notes, 
bv  Kkv.  Whitwpi.i,  Elwin,  and  W.  .1  Cohhtjiopk.  Vols.  1.,  II.,  III., 
IV.,  VI.,  VII.,  VIII.    With  Portrait.!.     8vo.     I0.«.  fij.  each. 

PORTER  (Rev,  J.  L.).  Damascus,  Palmyra,  and  Lebanon.  With 
Travels  among  the  Giant  Cities  of  Bashan  aud  the  llauran.  Map  aud 
Woodcuts.     Pqat  8vo.    It.  G<i. 

PRAYER-BOOK  (Illustrated),  with  Borders,  Initials,  Vig. 
nettes,  &c.  Edited,  with  Notes,  by  Rev.  Tuos.  J,v»iks.  Medium 
Svo.    1&».  cloth. 

PRINCESS    CHARLOTTE     OP    WALES.     A    Brief   Memoir. 

With   Selections  from    her   Correspondence    and     other    unpublished 
Papers.     Hy  Ladv  Rose  Weioall.    With    Portrait.    Svo.   8s.  6d. 

PRIVY    COUNCIL   JUDGMENTS    in    Ecclesiastical    Cases   re- 

lating  to   Doctrine    and     iJiscipline.       With   Historical    Introduction, 
by  G.  C.  Bbodhick  and  W.  H.  Fbkmantlb.    8vo.     lOs.  b<i. 


24  LIST  OF  WORKS 


PSALMS  OF  DAVID.     With  Notes  Explanatory  and  Critical  by 
Dean  Johnson,  Canon  Elliott,  and  Canon  Cook.     Medium  8vo.    lO.v.  6d. 
PUSS  IN  BOOTS.     With   12   Illustrations.     By  Otto  Speckter. 

16mo.     Is.  6d.     Or  coloured.  2|.  6d. 

QUARTERLY  REVIEW  (The).     8vo.    6«. 

RAE  (Edwaed).  Country  of  the  Moors.  A  Journey  from  Tripoli 
to  the  Holy  City  of  Kairwan.     j\Iap  and  Etchings.    Crown  8vo.     Vis. 

The  While  Sea  Peninsula.    Journey  to  the  White  Sea,  and 

the  Kola  Peninsula      With  Map  and  Illustrations.    Crown  8vo.   15s. 

RAMBLES  in   the  Syrian  Deserts,     Post  8vo.     lOs.  6d. 

RASSAM  (Hormuzd).  British  Mission  to  Abyssiuia.  Illustra- 
tions.  2  Vols.    6vo.    28s. 

RAWLINSON'S   (Canon)   Herodotus.     A  New  English  Vernon. 

Edited  with  Notes  aud  Essays.    Maps  and  Woodcuts.    4  Vols.     8vo.  48.s. 

Five  Great  Monarchies  of  Cbaldsea,  Assyria,  Media, 

Babylonia,  and  Persia.  With  Maps  and  IlluBtratiomi.  3  Vols.  8vo.  42s. 

(Sir  Henry)  England  and  Russia  in  the  East ;  a 

Series  of  Papers  on  the  Political  and  Geographical  Condition  ol  Central 
Asia.     Map.    8vo.     12s. 

REED  (Sir  E.  J.)  Iron-Clad  Ships ;  their  Qualities,  Performances, 
and  Cost.  With  Chapters  on  Turret  Ships,  Iron-Clad  Kams,<Sic.  With 
lllu.stiatious.     8vo.     12s. 

Letters  from  Russia  in  1875.     8vo.     5.?. 

Japan  :    Its  History,    Traditions,  and  Religions.      With 

Narrative  of  a  Visit  in  1879.  Illustrations.  2  V^ols.  8vo.     28s. 

REJECTED  ADDRESSES  (The).     By  James  ank  Hokaok  Smitf. 

Woodcuts.    Post  8vo.  3s.  Gd. ;  or  Popular  Edition,  Fcap.  8vo.  Is. 

REMBRANDT.     See  Middlkton. 

REVISED  VERSION  OF   N.  T.    [Sea  Beckett,  Burgon,  Cook.] 
REYNOLDS'   (Sir  Joshua)    Life  and  Times.     By  C.  K.  Lksub, 
R.A.  and  Tom  Taylor.     Portraits.    2  Vols.    8vo.    42s. 

RICARDO'S   (David)    Political   Works.    With  a  Notice  of  his 

Life  and  Writings.    By  J.  R.  M'CnLLocH.    Svo.    16s. 
RIPA  (Father).   Thirteen  Years  at  the  Court  of  Peking.     Post 

8vo.    2s. 
ROBERTSON  (Canon).    History  of  the  Christian  Church,  from  the 

Apostolic  Age  to  the  Reformation,  1517.    8  Vols.    Post  8vo.    6i.  each. 
ROBINSON  (Rev.  Dr.).    Biblical  Researches  in  Palestine  and  the 

Adjacent  Regions,  1838— 52.     Maps.   3  Vols.    Svo.   42s. 
— (Wm.)  Alpine   Flowers  for  English  Gardens.     With 

70  Illustrations.     Crown  8vo.     7s.  6d. 

Sub-Tropical  Garden.    Illustrations.    SmallJSvo.  5«. 

Parks  and  Gardens  of  Paris,  considered  in  Relation 

to  the  Wants  of  (j  her  Cities  and  of  Public  and  Private  Gardens.    With 

350  Illustrations.     .Svo.     ISs. 
• Wild  Garden  ;    or,  Our  Groves  and    Gardens   made 

B-.iutiful  by  thu   Natiiraliz  itiou  of  Hardy  Exotic  Plants.      With  VO 

lllustrafinns.     8v.>.     lO.v.  r,d. 

Hardy  Flowers.     Descriptions  of  upwards  of  1300  of 

the   mo.st  Ornauiental   Species;   with  Directions    lor    their    Culture. 
Post  Svo.    3,v.  Gd. 

Goa's  Acre  Made  Beautiful ;  or,  the  Cemeteries  of  the 

Future      With  .s  Illustrations.     .Svo.     7.<.  t'd. 

ROBSON  (E.  R.).  School  Architecture.  Remarks  on  the 
Planning,  Oesigning,  IJuilding,  and  Furnishing  of  School-houses. 
Illustrations.     Medium  Svo.    18s. 

ROME  (History  of).     Sea  Gibbon — Liddell — Smith — Students*. 


PUBLISHED  BY  MR.  MURRAY.  26 


KOYAL  SOCIETY  CATALOGUE  OF  SCIENTIFIC  TAPERS. 

8  vols.     8vo.     20«.  fucli.     Half  morocco,  28v.  each. 

RUXTON  (Qko.  F.).  Travels  inMexico;  with  Adventures amongWild 

Tribes  fttiil  Animals  of  the  Prairies  :iiid  Kockv  .MoiintAins.  HohI  8vo.  Ss.ft/. 
ST.  HUGH  OF  AVALON,  Bishop  of  Lincoln;  his  Life  l.y  O.  G. 

I'KiiRV,  Caiion  of  Lincoln.     Post  8vo.    10a.  6W. 
ST.  JOHN    (Charles).      Wild  SportB  and  Natural  History  of  the 

Hiehlands  of  Scotland.     Illustrated  Edition.     Crown  8vo.    155.    Cheap 

Kdition,  Post  8vo.  3*.  6<J. 

(Bayle)  Adventures  in  the  Libyan  Desert.  Post  8vo.  2». 

SALDANHA  (Dckeok).     See  Carnota. 

SALE'S  (Sir  Kobkrt)  Brigade  in  Att'ghanistan.  With  an  Account  of 

tlie  DefHHce  ol  Jellalabad.     By  Kkv.  G.  K.  Gi.Rio.     Post  8vo.     2». 

SCEPTICISM    IN    GEOLOGY;    and    the    Kea.wns   for   It.     An 

RRSimbla^'e  of  facts  from  Natvire  comhininR  to  r»-fiite  the  theory  of 
"Caiise«  now  in  Action."     Hy  Vkhifikr.    Woodcnts.    Crown  8vo.  6». 

SCHLIEMANN  (Dr.  Henry).  Troy  and  Its  IJemains.  A  Narra- 
tive of  Kest-arches  and  Uiscoveries  maite  on  thf  SitH  of  Ilium,  and  iu  thu 
Trojan  Plain.     With  50J  Illu-.lrations.     Medium  8vo.     42». 

Ancient  Mycenae  and  Tiryns.     With 

traiions.     Medium  8vo.    50.<. 

llios;    the    City   and   Country  of  tVe   Tnjans, 

includinfr  »ll  liecent  Discoveries  and  Kesearches  maile  on  the  Site 
of  Trey  and  tlie  Troad.  With  an  Autobiogiapliy.  With  2010  Illus- 
trations.    Impt-rial  8vo.    !>0s. 

Lattst  ExcivatioDS  at  Troy  (Hisparlik).     With 


a  Ueceut  ,1'junii'V  through  the  Troad.     Ilhistratioiis     Mediiuu  Svi 

SCHOMbEhG    (Genehal).     The   Odyssey   ot    Homer,   rendered 

into  Knglish  vers--.    \l  vols.     8vo.     24s. 

SCOTT  (Sir  Gilbert).     Lectures  on  the  Rise  and   Development 

of  MedKneval   Architecture.     Delivered  at  the  Royal  Academy.     With 
400  Illustrations.     •_'  Vols.     Medium  8vo.     42j. 

SCRUTTON  (Thos.  Edward).     Literary  and  Artistic  Property  in 

Kngland.     Tli«  Principles  which   should  Uef;u'at«  the   Laws  of  Copy- 
right, Arc,  and  tlieii  applic^iiion  to  this  and  other  Countrie".     Svo. 

SEEBOHM  (Henry).     Siberia  in  Europe;  a  Naturalist's  Visit  to 

the  Valley  of  the  IVtchora  in  N.E.  Kussia.     With  notices  of  Birds  and 
their  migrations.     Illustrations.     Crown  Svo.     lis. 

—     Si])eria  in  Asia.    A  visit  to  the  Valley  of  the  Yenessy 

in  Eastern  .*ib('ria.     \Mth  Descriptions  of  the  Natural  Ilistjry,  Migra- 
tions of  Birds,  kc.     Illustrations.     Crown  Svo.     I4j. 

SELBOKNK  (Lord).     Notes  on  some   Passages  in  the  Liturgical 

History  of  the  Keforined  English  Church.    Svo.    6«. 
SHADOWS    OF  A  blCK  ROOM.       Preface  by  Canon  Liddon. 

Itjmo.     2(1.  6d. 

SHAH  OF   PEHSU'S  Diary  during  his  Tour  through  Europe  in 

187;5.     With  Portrait.     Crowu  8vo.     \2s. 

SHAW  (T.  B.).  Manual  of  English  Literature.  Post  Svo.     7s.  6(/. 

Specimens   of    English   Literature.      Selected   from   the 

Chief  Writers.     Post  8ve.     7/.  6d. 

(Robert).  Visit  to  High  Tartary,  Yarkand,  and  Kashgar 

(formerly  Chinese  Tartary),  and  Keturn  Journey  over  the  Karakorum 
Pass.     With  Map  and  Illustrations.     Svo.     16«.  • 

SIERRA  LEONE  ;  Described  in  Letters  to  Friends  at  Home.     By 
A  Lady.    Post  Svo.    3j.  W. 

SIMMONS   (Capt.).    Constitution  and   Practice    of  Courts-Mar- 
tial.   Svo.    15s. 


26  LIST  OF  WORKS 


SMILES'   (Samuel,  LL.D.)  WORKS:— 

British  Ekgineers  ;  from  the  Earliest  Period  to  the  death  of 

the  Sfephensin-i.     Illiistrationa.   5  Vols.  Crnwn  8vo.    In.  Hd.  each. 

George  Stephenson.     Po^t  8vo.     ;!6'.  6d. 

James  Nasmyth.  Portrait  atd  Illustiations.  Cr.  8vo.  16s. 
Scotch  Naturalist  (Thos.Kdward).  Illuftrations.  PostSvo.  6s. 
Scotch  Geologist  AND  Botanist.  (Kobert  Dick).  Illustralionf. 

Crown  Sro.      12s. 

Huguenots  in  England  and  Ireland.     Crown  8vo.    7s.  Qd. 

Self-Help.  With  Illustrations  of  Conduct  and  Persever- 
ance.   Post  8vo.  6s. 

Character.     A  Book  of  Noble  Cliaractcrisfics.    Post  8vo.   6s. 

Thrift.     A  Book  of  Domestic  Counsel.     Post  8vo.     6«. 

Duty.  With  Illustrations  of  Courage,  Patience,  and  Endurance. 
Post  6vo.    6s. 

Industrial  Biography;   or.  Iron  Workers  and  Tool  Makers. 

Post  bvo.    6s. 

Boy's  Voyage  Round  the  World.    Illustrations.     Post  8vo.  6s. 
SMITH  (Dr.  George)  Student's  Manual  of  the  Geography  of  Biitish 
India.  Physical  and  Political.     Willi  Maps.     PostSvo.     7i.  6c/. 

Life   of  John  Wilson,  D.D.   (Bombay),  Missionary  and 

Philanthropist.     I'orlrait.     PostSvo.    9s. 
(Philip).  History  of  the  Aucient  World,  from  the  Creation 


to  the  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,  a  d.  476.     3  Vols.    8vo.     31s.  Gd. 

SMITH'S  (Dr.  Wm.)  DICTIONARIES:— 

Dictionary    of    the     Bible;    its    Antiquities,    Biography, 

Geography,  and  Natural  History.     Illustrations.    3  Volp.    8vo.    106». 
Concise  Bible  Dictionary.    Illustrations.     8vo.     21s. 
Smaller  Bible  Dictionary,    illustrations.   Post  8vo.    7s.  6rl. 
Christian    Antiquities.      Comprising    the    History,    Jn^ti- 

tniions,  and  Antiquities  of  the  Chiistian  Churcli.  Illustratious.  2  Vols. 

Mfdium  8vo.     3/.  13s.  6d. 

Christian  Biography,   Literature,    Sects,   and  Doctrines; 

from  ilic  Times  of  the  Apcstles  to  the  A^eof  Cluirlt  marine.   Medium  Svn. 
Vols.  I.  II.  <k  lit.     31s  ed.  enc'i.      (To  b«  ooii,|ile'fd  in  4  Vo's.) 

Greek   and    Roman    Antiquities.      Illus. rations.     Medium 

8vo.    28s. 
Greek  and  Roman  Biography  and  Mythology.  Illujtratione. 

3  Vols.    Medium  8vo.    il.  4s. 
Greek    and    Roman     Geography.      2    Vols.     Illustrations. 

Medium  8vo.    Stis. 
Atlas   of  Ancient     Geography — Biblical    and    Classical. 

Folio.    61.  6s. 
Classical     Dictionary     of    Mythology,     Biography,    and 

Geoorapbt.     1  Vol.     With  750  Woodcuts.   8vo.     ISs. 

Smaller   Classical  Dictionary.     Woodcuts.       Crown    8vo. 

7s.  6d. 

Smaller  Greek  and  Roman  Antiquities.    Woodcuts.    Crown 

8vo.     7s.  6d. 

Complete  Latin-English  Dictionary.     With   Tables  of  the 

lionian  Calendar,  Measuies,  Wei;<hts,  and  Money.     8vo.     21s. 
Smaller  Latin-English  Dictionary.     l2mo.     7s.  6d. 
Copious  and  Critical  English-Latin  DICTIONARY^     8vo.    21.«. 
Smaller  English-Latin  Dictionary.     12mo.  75.  6d. 


PUBLISHED  BY  MR.  MURRAY.  27 


SMITH'S  (Dr.  Wm.)  ENGLISH  COURSE:— 

School  Manual  of  Englisu  Gkammak,  witu  Conous  Exkkcises. 

Post  bvo.     «■..  tid. 

Primauy  En(!i-ish  Grammar.     l<!mo.      l.s. 

Manual  of  English  C'o.mi-osition.      With   Copious    Illustra- 
tions Kiiil  I'l'ictical  BxiTcises.     riiiio.    3s.  6J. 
Primary  History  of  Britain.     r2mo.     2s.  6d, 
School   JIanual    op    Modern    Geoqrapht,    Physical    and 

Pclitical.     I'ost  8vo.     b». 

A  Smaller  Manual  of  Modern  Gkoorapbt.     16mo.     2s.  6d. 
SMITH'S  (Dr.  Wm.)  FRENCH  COURSE:— 

French  Puincipia.  Part  I.  A  First  Courpc,  containing  a 
Gramniiir,  Delrc'iix,  Kxerri-es,  Hiid  VociilnilariHH.     rjiiio.     ."n.  M. 

Appendix  to  French  Principia.  Part  I.  Containing  ad- 
ditional Exerci.s^'^,  wiili  K.xumiii&iiun  I'ltpers.     12nio.    2s.€tl. 

FhENcn  Principia.  Part  II.  A  Reading  Book,  containing 
KHbles,  Stories,  and  Anecdotes,  Natural  liihtory,  and  Scenes  from  tiie 
History  of  France.  With  lirHnimatical  Questions,  Notes  and  copious 
Elyniological  Dictionary.     12mo.     4j.  dd. 

French  Principia.  Part  111.  Prose  Composition,  containing 
a  Systematic  C<lUr^e  of  Exorcises  on  tlio  Syntai,  with  the  Principal 
Hules  of  Syntax.    I'iino.  [In  the  IVeu. 

Student's   French   Grammar.      By  C.   Hkbon-Wall.     With 

Introduction  by  M.  Littre.     Post  8vo.     7«.  6(/. 

Smaller   Grammar  of   the  French   Lanouaqe.      Abridged 

from  the  above.     linio.     3,«.  6d. 

SMITH'S  (Dr.  Wm.)  GERMAN  COURSE  :— 

German  Principia.     Part  1.  A  First  German  Courpe,  contain- 
ing aGraniniar,  Delectus,  Exercise  Hook,  and  V'lHahularies.  r2mo.  3s.  W. 
German  Principia.     I'art  II.     A  Reading  Book  ;  containing 

Kables,  St.  ries,  and  Anecdotes,  Natural  llistoiy,  and  Scenes  from   the 
History  of  Grrniauy.  Wiib  Grammatical  Quesiious,  Notes,  and  Dic- 
tionary.    I'imo.  3».  tUl. 
Practical  German  Grammar.     Post  8vo.     3s.  6d. 
SMITH'S  (Dr.  Wm.)  ITALIAN  COURSE:— 

Italian  Principia.     Parti.     An  It«lian  Course,  containing  a 

Grammar,  Delectus,  Exercise  l?nnk,  with  Vocabularies,  and  Materials 
for  Dalian  (;ni.\vrs«ti"n.  Ky  Signor  Hicci,  Piolessor  ol  Italian  at 
the  City  of  London  College.     12mo.    3».  iid. 

Italian  Principia.     Part  II.     A  First  Italian  Reading  Book, 

containing  Eahles,  Anccdotep,  Historr,  nnd  I'Hssages  fmra  the  best 
Dalian  Au'hors,  with  GramuMtical  Q-testions,  Notes,  and  a  Copious 
EtyuiologicHl  Dictionary,      liy  Sigsok  Kicci.     12mo.     Za.Hd. 

SMITH'S  (Dr.  Wm.)  LATIN  COURSE:— 

The  Yocno  Beginner's  First  Latin  Book  :   Containing  the 

Kudiments  of  Gramni.ir,  Easv  Grammatical  QuestioiiS  and   Exercises, 
with  Vrcabolaries.     Being  a  Stepping  stote  to  Principia  Eatina,  Part  1. 
for  Vcung  Cbildien.     12mo.    2». 
The  Youno  Beginner's  Second  Latin  Book:   Containing  an 

e»sy  Latin  Rending  Hook,  with  an  Analysis  of  the  Sentences,  Notes, 
and  a  Dictionary,  lieing  a  Stepping-stone  to  Principia  Latina,  Part  II. 
(i  r  Young  Childioi).     12mo.     2«. 

Principia  Latina.     Part  L  First  Latin  Course,  containing  a 

Grammar,  Delectus, .ind  Exercise  Book,  with  Vocahiilaries.  J2mo.  Sa.U. 
•»•  In  this  Edition  the  Cases  of  the  N'>uns,  Adjectives,  and  Pronouns 
are  arrang^-d  both  as  in  the  obdisahy  Gbammaks  and  as  in  the  PrDLio 
ScuooL  pRiUKU,  together  with  the   corre.sp*  tiding    Exercises. 


28  LIST  OF  WORKS 


SMITH'S  (Dr.  Wm.)  Latin  Coursk— continued. 

Appendix  to  Principia   Latina.  Tart  I.;   being  Additional 

Exercises,  witli  Exauiinatioii  Pupers.     12mo.     2j  6d. 
Principia  Latina.     Part  II.   A  Keading-book  of  Mythology, 
Geography,  Komau  Antiquities,  aud   History.     With  Notes  and  Dic- 
tionary.    12mo.    3».  6d. 

Principia  Latina.     Part  IIL     A  Poetry  Book.     Hexameters 

and  Pentameters;  Eclo^.  Uvidian»;   Latin  Prosody.  12mo.     3*.  6d. 

Principia  Latina.  Part  IV.  Prose  Composition.  Kules  of 
i?yntax  with  Examples,  Explanations  of  Sjnonyms,  and  Exercises 
on  the  Syntax.     12mo.     3*.  6rf. 

Principia  Latina.     Part  V.  Short  Tales   and  Anecdotes  for 

Translation  into  Latin.     12mo.    3s. 

Latin-English     Vocabdlaey     and     Fikst      Latin-English 

DiCTIO.VAEY  FOR  Pn^URUS,  CORNELIUS  Nkpos,  andCesar.    12mo.  3s.6d. 

Student's  Latin  Grammar.     For  the  Higher    Forms.     Post 

8vo.     6s. 

Smaller  Latin  Grammar.    For  the  Middle  and  Lower  Forms. 

12mo.    3s.  6rf. 

Tacitus,    Germania,   Agricola,    &c.      With     English   Notes. 

l'2mo.    3s.  6d. 

SMITH'S  (Dr.  Wm.)  GREEK  COURSE:  — 

InitiaGr^ca.  Partl.  A  First  Greek  Course,  containingaGram- 

mir,  Delectus,  and  Exercise-book.     With  Vocabularies.     12rao.  3s.  6<i. 
Appendix  to  Initia  Gr^ca,     Part  I.     Cuntaining  additional 
Exe^ci^eH.     With  Exaudniticn  Papers.     Poat  Svo.     2s.  6i/. 

Initia  GRiECA.  Part  II.  A  l^eading  Dook.  Containing 
Short  Tales.  Auecdotis,  Fables,  Mythology,  aud  Grecian  History 
12mo.     3s.  6d. 

Initia  Grjsca.  Part  III.    Prose  Composition.    Containing  the 

Kales  of  Syntax,  with  copious  Examples  and  Exercises.     12mo.    3s.  6d 

Student's  Greek  Grammar.  For  the  Pligher  Forms.  By 
CoRTius.    Post  8vo.    6s. 

Smaller  Greek  Gp.ammar.  For  the  Middle  and  Lower  Forms. 
I'imo.    3s.  6d. 

Greek  Accidence.     12mo.     2s.  6d. 

Plato,  Apology  of  Socrates,  &c.   With  Notes.    12mo.   3.*.  6d 
SMITH'S  (Dr.  Wm.)  SMALLER  HISTORIES:— 

Scripture  History.     Woodcuts.    16mo.     Bs.  6d. 

Ancient  History.     Woodcuts.    16mo.    3s.  6d, 

Ancient  Geography.    Woodcuts.     16mo.     3s.  6d. 

Modern  Geography.     16ino,     2s.  6d. 

Greece.     Maps  and  Woodcuts.     16mo.     3s.  6d, 

EoME.     Maps  and  Woodcuts.     16mo.     3s.  6c?. 

Classical  Mythology.  Woodcuts.     16mo.     3s.  6d. 

England.     Maps  and  Woodcuts.    16mo.     3s,  6d. 

English  Literature.      ]6mo.     3s.   6d. 

Specimens  op  English  Literature.     16mo.     3s.  6d. 
80MERVILLE  (Mary).    Personal  Recollections  from  Early  Life 

to  Old  Age.     Portrait.     Crown  8vo.    12/. 

Physical  Geography.     Portrait.     Post  8vo.   9s. 

Connexion  of  the  Physical  Sciences.    PostSvo.  9?. 

■ Molecular    &    Microscopic    Science,      lllustralions. 

2  Vols,    Post  Svo.     21s. 


PUBLISHED  BY  MR.  MURRAY.  29 

SOUTH  (John  F.).     Household  Surgery  ;  or,  Hints  for  Emergen- 
cies.   With  Woodcuts.     Fcap.    8vo.    3s.  6i/. 
SOUTHEY  (RoBT.).  Lives  of  Bunyan  and  Cromwell,  Tost  8va.  2«. 
STANHOPE'3  (Earl)  WORKS  :— 

History   of   England  from   the  Reion   of  Queen  Annk   to 
THE  Pkack  OF  Vkhbaii.i.kh,  1701-83.     9  voIh.     Post  8vo.    6j.  eacb. 

Life  of  William  Pitt.     Portraite.    3  Vols.     8vo.     36». 

Miscellanies.    2  Vols.     Post  8vo.     13.1. 

British  India,  FROM  ITS  Origin  TO  1783.    Post  Svo.     3s.   6d, 

History  OP  "FoRTY-FivK."   Post  8vo.     3«. 

Historical  and  Critical  Essays.     Post  8vo.     3j».  6d. 

The  Retreat  from  Moscow,  and  other  Essays.  Podt8YO.  7f.6d. 

Life  of  Belisarius.     Post  8vo.     lO.v.  6<L 

Life  of  Condk.    Post  8vo.     8«.  6d. 

Story  of  Joan  of  Arc.     Fcap.  8vo.     It. 

Addressks  on  Various  Occasions.     16mo.     Is. 
STANLEY'S  (Dean)  WORKS  :— 

Sinai  and  Palestine.     Maps.    8vo.     lis. 

Bible  in  the  Holy  Land  ;  Extracied  from  the  above  Work. 
Wsodcuts.    Fcap.  8vo.     2s.  6d. 

Eastern  Church.     Crown  8vo.    6.5. 

Jewish  Church.     From  the  Earliest  Times  to  the  Christian 
Kra.    3  VoIk.  Svo.    3Ss. 

Church  of  Scotland.     Svo,     7«.  6d. 

Epistles  of  St.  Paul  to  the  Corinthians.     Svo.    ISs. 

Life  of  Dr.  Arnold.     Portrait.     2  Vols.     Cr  Svo.     128. 

Canterbury  Cathedral.     Illustrations.     Post  Svo, 

Westminster   Abbey.     Illustrations.    Svo.     15s. 

Sermons  during  a  Tour  in  the  East.     Svo.    9s. 

ON  Special   Occasions,  Preached  in  Westminster 

AVibey.     8vo.     Vis. 

Memoir  OF  Edward,  Catherine, and  Mary  Stanley.  Cr.  Svo.  9«. 

Christian  Institutions.     Essays  on  Ecclesiastical  Subjects. 

Svo.     12«. 

[See  also  Bradley] 
STEPHENS   (Rev.    W.  R,  W.),      Life  and    Times   of  St.  John 
Chrj-Bostom.    A  Sketch  of  the  Church  and  the  Empire  in  the  Fourth 
Century.     Portrait.    Svo.  I2.«. 

STRATFORD  de  REDCLIFFE  (LordV     The  Eastern  Question. 

Being  a  Sflection  from  his  Writin^js  duriofj  tlio  l«st  Five  Years  of  his 
Life.     With  a  Preface  by  Uean  Stanley.      With  Map.     Svo.    9s. 

STREET  (G.  E.).   Gothic  Architecture   in    Spain,      Illustrations. 

Royal  Svo.    80*. 
■ in  Brick  and  Marble.  With 

Notes  on  North  of  Italy.    Illustrations.   P.nyal  Svo.  26j. 
STUART  (ViLLiERs).   Nile  Gleanings:  The    Ethnology,   History, 

and  Art  of  Ancient  Egypt,  as  Revealed  by  PaintinKS  and  Bas- 
Keliefs.  With  Desciiptions  of  Nubia  and  its  Great  Kock  Temples, 
53  Coloured  lllustration'i,  £c.    Medium  Svo.    3U.6d. 

The  Funeral  Tent  of  an  Egyptian  Queen,  discovered  at 

Thebes.  Printed  in  colours  from  the  antlior's  original  drawings.  With 
Ti  ansiatiuns  and  Explanations  of  the  hieroglyphics,  &c.    Roy.  8vo.  18*. 


30  LIST  OP  WORKS 


STUDENTS'  MANUALS:— 

Old  Testament  History  ;  from  the  Creation  to  the  Return  of 

the  Jews  from  Captivity.     Woodciits.     Post  8vo.     7s.  6J. 

New  Testament  Histort.     With  an  Introduction  connecting 

the  Hir^toryol  theOld  HDil  NewTestamoiits.  Woodcii's.   Post  8vo.  7s.6d. 

Evidences  of  Chkistianity.    By  H.  Wack,  D.D.     Post  8vo. 

[/;i  the  press. 
Ecclesiastical  History.    By  Philip  Smith,  B.A. 

Part  I.— First  Ten  Centuries.  From  the  Foundation  of  the  Christian 
Church  to  the  lull  establishment  of  tlie  Holy  Konian  Empire  and  tlie 
Papal  Power,  A. D.  30— 1003.     Woodcuts.     Post  hvo.     7t.  6d. 

Part  II.—  The  Midiile  Ages  and  the  Kelormation,  l't03  1598. 
Woodcuts.    Poit  8vo.    7s.  M.  \lnthe  Pn-is. 

English  Church  History.     By  Canon  Perry.     2  Vols.     Post 

8vo.     7s.  6'.  ench. 

First  Perh.d,  from  the  planting  of  the  Church  in  Britain  to  the  Acces- 
sion of  Henry  VIII.     A.D.  596—1509. 

Second  Period,  from  the  accession  of  Henry  VIII.  to  the  silencing  of 
Convocation  in  the  IStli  Century,  1509 — 1717. 

Ancient  History  op  the  East  ;  Egypt.  Assyria,  Babylonia, 

Media,  Persia,  Asia  Minor,  and  Phoenicia.    Woodcuts.    PostSvo.  7«.  6d. 

Ancient   Geography.      By  Canon  Bevan.     Woodcuts.    Post 

8vo.     7s.  Gd. 

History  of  Greece  ;   from  the  Earliest  Times  to  Ihe  Koman 

Conquest.     By  Wm.  Smith,  P.C.L.     Woodcuts.     Crowu  8vo.    7s.  6<i. 
*,*  Questions  on  the  above  Work,  12mo.     2.s. 
History  of  Kome  ;    from  the  Earliest  Times  to  the  Eetablish- 
nient  of  the  Empire.  By  Dban  Liddell.  Woodcuts.  Crown  S'o.  7s.  6(i. 

Gibbon's  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  JJoman  Empire.  Woodcuts. 

Post  8vo.    7s.  6d. 

Hallam"s    History    of    Europe    during   the  Middle  Ages. 

Postbvo.     7s.  6<i. 

History   of  Modern   Europe,  from  the  end  of  the  Middle 

Apes  to  tlie  Treaty  of  Berlin,  1878.     Post  8vo.  [In  the  Press. 

Hallam's    History  op    England  ;    from    the    Accession    of 

Henry  VII.  to  tlie  Death  of  George  II.    Post  8yo.   7s.  6d, 
Hume's  HasTORY  of  England   from    the   Invasion  of  Julius 
Csesar   to  (he  Revolution   in  lti88.      Revised,    and    continued    to    the 
Treaty  of  Berlin,  lS7rf.      Bv  J.  S.  Bbeweb,  M.A.    Coloured  Maps  and 
Woodcuts.     Post  8vo.     7s.  Hd. 

***  Questions  on  the  above  Work,  12mo.    2s. 
History  of  France  ;    from  the  Earliest  Times  to  the  Estab- 
lishment of  the  Second  Empire,  1852.    By  11.  W,  Jebvis.  Woodcuts. 
Post  8vo     7s.  6./. 

English  Language.  By  Geo.  P.  Marsh.  Post  8vo.  7s.  6d. 
English  Literature.  Bj  T.  B.  Shaw,  M.A.  Post  8vo.  7s. 6d 
Speci-mens  OF  English  Literature.  ByT.B.SuAW.Post8vo.7i<!.6(i. 
Modern  Geography  ;  Mathematical,  Physical  and  Descriutivo. 

By  Canon  Bbvan.    Woodcuts.   Post  8vo.  7s.>id. 
Geography  of  Bbitisu    India.       Political  and  Physical.     By 

tiKDRGE  Smith,  LL.D.     Maps.    Post  8vo.    7:.  6d. 
Moral  Philosophy.  By  Wm.  Fleming.     Post  8vo.  7s.  6d. 
Blackstone"s  Commentaries.     By  Malcolm  Kerr.     Post  8vo. 

7*.  M. 

SUMNER'S  (Bishop)  Life  and  Episcopate  during  40  Years.     By 

Rev.  G.  II.  SuM.sER.    Portrait.    8vo.    14». 
SWAINSON    (Canon).      Nicene     and   Apostles'   Creeds;     Their 

Literary  History  ;  together  with  some  AccouBt  of  "The  Creed  of  St. 

AtUanasius."    8vo.     16s. 


SWIFT  (Jonathan).     [See  Ckaik,  Forstek.] 

SYBEL  (Von)    History  of  Europe  during  the  French  Revolution, 

1789-1703.     4  Vols.    8vo.     4«.<. 
BYiMONDS'   (Kkv.  W.)  Kecords  of  the  Rocks;  or  Notes  on  the 

Geology  of  Wales,  Devon,  mil]  Cornwall.    Crown  8vo.     l'i>. 
TALMUD.     See  BARCLiY  ;  Dkutijoh. 
TEMl'LE  (Sir  KiciiAKi)).    India  in  ISSO.     With  Map.s.    8vo.    IQs. 

Alen  and  Kveut.s  of  ^ly  Time  in  India.     8vo.     ICs-. 

THIB.VUT'S  (Antoine)     Purity  in  Musical  Art.     With  Prefatory 

Mi'inoir  by  W.  11.  Gliidstonc,  M.P.     Post  Svo.     7s.  6J. 
TIIIEIiMANN     (Baron;.     Journey    through    the     Caucasus    to 

Tabiet>z,  Kiir.listaii,   down  the   Tigris  ami    Eiipliratus  to  Nineveh  and 

Palmyr*.     Illustrations.     2  Vols.    Po.stSvo.    18a. 
THOMSON  (Archbish©!').     Lincoln's  Inn  Sermons.    Svo.  10s.  6d. 

Life  in  the  Light  of  God's  Word.     Post  Svo.     5s, 

Word,  Work,  &  Will  :  Collected  Essays.   Cro«n  8vo.9.«. 

TITIAN'S   LIFE   AND   TIMES.      With    some  account   of  his 

Fnniily,  from  unpublished   Uecords.     By  CaowB  and  Cavalcabellb. 

Illu-itrations.     2  Vols.     8vo.    21». 

TOCQUE  VI  LEE'S  Slate  of  Society  in  France  before  the  Revolution, 

1789,  and  on  the  C.iuses  which  led  to  that  Event.    Svo.     14j. 

TOMLINSON(Chas.);  The  Sonnet;  Its  Origin,  Structure,  and  Place 

in  Poetrv.     Post  8vi>.    94, 
TOZER  (Kev.'  H.  F.)  Highlands  of  Turkey,  with  Visits  to  Mounts 

Ida,  Athos,  Olympus,  and  Pelion.     2  Vols.     Crown  8vo.    24i. 

Lectures  on  the   Geography  of  Greece.    Post  8vo.    9a. 

TRISTRAM  (Canon).   Great  Sahara.    Illustrations.  Crown  Svo.  15.s. 
_     -  Land  of  Moab  ;  Travels  and  Discoveries  on  the  East 

Side  of  the  Dead  Sea  and  the  Jordan.    Illustration').    Crown  Svo.   15s. 
TWENTY  YEARS'  RESIDENCE  among  the  Greeks,  Albanians, 

Tuik-t,  Armenians,  and  Bulgarians.     By  an  English  Ladv.     2  Vols. 

Crown  Svo.     2U. 
TWINING  (Key.  Tiios.l  'Recreations   and  Studies  of  a  Country 

Ck'riiynian  iif  thi'  Last  Century.     Crown  Svo.     9s. 

TWISS'  (Hokaoe)  Life  of  Lord  Eldon.     2  Vols.     Post  Svo.    21«. 
TYLOR  (E.    B.)  Reseirches  into  the  Early   History   of  Mankind, 

and  Development  of  Civilization.    .3rd  Edition.     Svo.     12s. 
Primitive  Culture ;  the  Development  of  Mythology, 

Philosophy.  Keligion,  Art,  and  Custom.    2  Vols.   Svo.    24i. 

VATICAN  COUNCIL.    See  Lkto. 

VIRCHOW    (Professor).      The    Freedom     of    Science    in    the 

Modern  Stite.     Fcap.  Hvo.    2.<. 
WACE  (Rev.  Henuy),  D.D.     The  Principal  Facts  in  tiie   Life  of 

our  Lord,  and  the  Antborily  of  the  Evangelical  Narratives.  l*i>stSvo.  0>-. 
WELLINGTON'S    Despatches  during    his    Campaiifus  in  India. 

Denmark,  Portugal,  Spain,  the  Low  Countries,  and  France.    8  Vols. 

8to.    £8  8s. 
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Ireland,  Denmark,  SpHuish  America,  Spnin,  Pnrtiigal,  France,  Con- 
gress of  Vienna,  Waierloo  and  Paris.  With  Index.  15  Vols.  Svo. 
20i.  each. 

Civil  and  Political  Correspondence.    Vols.  I.  to 

VIII.     8vo.     20j.  each. 

Speeches  in  Parliament.    2  Vols.    Svo.    42^. 


32       LIST  OF   WORKS  PUBLISHED  BY   MR.  MURRAY. 


■WHARTON  (Capt.  "W.  J.  L.),  R-N.  Hydrographical  Surveying, 
beins  a  description  of  th«  means  and  methods  emylDyed  in  constructiug 
Marine  Cliarts.     With  IlliistratioDS.     8vo.     15.s. 

WHEELER  (G.).    Choice  of  a  Dwelling.     Poet  8vo.     7».  6d. 

WHITE  (W.  H.).  Manual  of  Naval  Architecture,  for  the  use  of 
Naval  Otficers.  Shipowners,  Shipbuilders,  and  Yachtsmen.  Illustra- 
tions.   8vo.     24s. 

"WHYMPER  (Edward).  The  Ascent  of  the  Matterhom.  "With 
100  lUubtrations.      Medium  8vo.     10s.  6d. 

WILBERFORCE'S  (Bishop)  Life  of  William  Wilberforce.  Portrait. 
Crown  8vo.    6«. 

(Samuel,  LL.D.),  Lord  Bishop  of  Oxford  and 

Winchester;  his  Life.  By  Cxnun  Ashwell,  D.D.,  and  R.  G.  Wilbee- 
rORCE.  With  Portraits  and  Woodcuts.     3  Vols.    8vo.     15s.  each. 

WILKINSON  (Sir  J.  G.).  Manners  and  Customs  of  the  Ancient 
Egyptians,  their  Private  Life,  Laws,  AxU,  Religion,  &c.  A  new  edition. 
Edited  by  Samuel  Birch,  LL.D.    Illustrations.    3  Vols.     8vo.    84s. 

Popular  Account  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians.    With 


500  Woodcuts.  2  Vols.  Post  Svo.  12«. 
AVILKINSON  (Hugh).  Sunny  Lands  and  Seas:  A  Cruise 
Round  the  World  in  the  S.S.  "Ceylon."  Being  Notes  made  in  a  Five 
Months'  Tour  in  India,  the  Strait-i  Settlemen's,  Manila,  Cliina,  Japan, 
the  Sandwich  Islands,  and  California.  With  Illustrations.  Crown 
Svo.     12s. 

WILLIAMS  (Monier).    Religious  Life  and  Thought  in  Ind'a.    An 

Account  of  the  Religions  of  the  Indian  People.  B^sed  on  a  Life's  Study 
of  their  Literature  and  on  peisoual  iuveatigaiions  in  their  own  country. 
870.  L^"' ''"  press. 

WILSON  (John,  D.D.).     See  Smith  (Geo.). 
WOOD'S   (Captain)    Source  of  the  Oxus.     With  the  Geography 
of  the  Valley  of  the  Uxiis.     By  Col.  Yule.     Map.    Svo.     12s, 

WORDS  OF  HUMAN  WISDOM.     Collected  and  Arranged  by 

E.  S.     With  a  Preface  by  Canon  Liddon.    Fcap.  Svo.     3s.  6rf. 
WORDSWORTH'S   (Bishop)  Greece  ;  Pictorial,  Des.criptive,  and 

Historical.  With  an  introduction  on  the  Characteristics  oi  Gieek  Art, 
by  Geo.  Scharf.  New  Edition  revised  by  the  Rev.  H.  F.Tozek,  M.A. 
With  400  lUustratiuus.     Royal  Svo.     3U.  6d. 

YORK  (Archbishop  of).    Collected  Essays.    Contents. — Synoptic 

Gospels.  Death  of  Christ.  God  Exists.  Worth  of  Life.  Design  in 
Nature.  Sports  and  Pastimes.  Emotions  in  Preaching.  Defects  in 
Missionary  Work.     Limits  of  Philosophical  Enquiry.     Crown  Svo.    9s, 

YORK   GATE  Geographical  and  Colonial  Library  (Catalogue  of). 

Medium  Svo.     10s.  tiii. 
YULE  (Colonel).  Book  of  Marco   Polo.    Illustrated  by  the  Light 

of  Oriental  Writers  and  Modern  Tiavels.    With  Maps  and  80  Plates. 

2  Vols.     Medium  Svo.    63s. 

(A.  F.)     A  Little  Light  on  Cretan  Insurrection.    Post 


8vo.     2«.  6ii. 


BRADBURY,   AQNEW,    &  CO.,   PRTNTEES,   WHITEFRIAR3. 


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